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Ilisitori'  of  rtje 
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From  the   jMwslem  Conquest  of   Spain 
To     the     Discovery     of     America 


WITH         ILLUSTRATIONS, 
MAPS         AND  NOTES 


By    the 

Rev.  Maurice  H.  Harris,  A.M.,  Ph.D. 

Author  of  "People  of  the  Book," 

"A  Thousand  Years  of  Jewish  History," 

"Modern   Jewish   History," 

"Selected  Addresses,"  etc. 


THIRD    EDITION 

Revised,  Enlarged  and  Indexed 


NEW    YORK: 

BLOCK     PUBLISHING    CO.,   26    EAST    22d    STREET 

.     1921 


Copyright,   ?9t6 
By  MAURICE  H.  KARRIS 


\ 


Press  of 

Philip   Cowei] 

New  York 


YftL 


INTRODUCTION. 


Jewish  history  in  the  Middle  Ages  is,  broadly  speak- 
ing, European;  hitherto  it  had  been  Asiatic.  The  story 
of  the  Jews  of  the  epoch  here  treated  is  largely  a  Span- 
ish story ;  and  in  so  far  as  it  is  Spanish,  it  is  largely  a 
literary  story.  Long  deprived  of  State  power  and  pres- 
tige, their  work  is  confined  to  the  academy  and  the 
study.  The  Jewish  Chazar  Kingdom  i.s  hardly  an  ex- 
ception, for,  like  Jonah'^  gourd,  "it  came  up  in  a  night 
and  withered  in  a  night." 

It  is  true  that  in  the  Peninsula  the  Jews  did  exercise 
a  kind  of  political  power,  but  it  was  "behind  thrones," 
not  on  them.  Here  Ibn  Nagdela,  Ibn  Schaprut  and 
Abarbanel  loom  prominent. 

The  literature,  the  production  of  which  covers  so 
much  of  this  period,  falls  into  two  groups : — 

(i)  A  literature  zvritten  around  the  Law,  consisting 
of  Commentaries,  Digests  and  Responsa.  These  form 
an  unbroken  chain  of  development  in  Jewish  practice 
from  the  close  of  the  Babylonian  schools  to  the  pro- 
duction of  the  Summary  of  the  Asherides. 

(2)  A  Philosophy,  interpreted  for  the  most  part  in 
terms  of  the  prevailing  Neo-Platonic  and  Aristotelian 
schools,  yet  with  certain  vital  discriminations  that  make 
it  a  distinctively  Jewish  Theology.  It  synchronizes  with 
the  Scholasticism  of  the  Church,  which  it  greatly  influ- 


VI  INTRODUCTION 

enced.     This  Philosophy  covers  a  wide  range  from  the 
rationaHsm  of  Gersonides  to  the  mysticism  of  Kabala. 

Yet  here  and  there  these  two  streams  merge.  The 
Philosophy  took  the  Bible  as  its  starting  point  and  objec- 
tive, while  some  of  the  commentaries  are  philosophies. 

Some  men  belong  to  both  divisions,  such  as  Saadyah ; 
Maimonides  gave  us  a  "Second  Law"  as  well  as  a 
"Guide  to  the  Perplexed." 

Between  the  two,  the  poets  occupy  a  middle  place  ;  yet 
even  these  take  God  and  the  Law  as  their  classic  themes. 
Gabirol  and  Halevi   were  poet  philosophers. 

The  Jewish  litterateur  wrote  only  for  his  own  people, 
though  occasionally  reaching  beyond  the  confines  of 
Jewry.  But  the  Jewish  trader  served  an  economic  func- 
tion for  the  world  at  large.  Here  he  was  the  advance 
herald  of  commerce  in  an  age  of  feudalism.  He  financed 
States  and  projects  before  the  Italian  banker  appeared 
to  give  dignity  to  money-lending  by  the  use  of  a  new 
name. 

But  far  more  important  than  his  place  as  middleman 
in  the  realm  of  industry  was  his  place  as  middleman  in 
the  realm  of  letters.  The  Jewish  linguists  and  trans- 
lators brought  Judaeo-Arabic  science  to  the  knowledge 
of  Christian  Europe,  thus  linking  the  races. 

While  the  Hebrew  and  the  Moslem  lived  together 
congenially  and  explored  the  realms  of  science  hand  in 
hand,  by  the  Christian  the  Jews  were  rarely  understood. 
Hence,  their  status  in  Christendom  was  a  precarious 
one.  They  stood  a  helpless  minority  in  a  bigoted  en- 
vironment. At  its  best,  theirs  was  a  life  of  sufi^erancc 
with  its  details  of  legal  restrictions,  taxes  that  were 
spoliations,  and  the  humiliations  of  badge  and  ghetto. 
At   its   worst,   it   was   a   terrific   tragedy,   of   which   the 


INTRODUCTION  Vll 

"Hep,  Hep!"  of  the  Crusaders  was  the  first  act,  the 
Black  Death  and  the  Inquisition  the  second  act,  the 
massacres  and  the  expulsions  making  the  chmax. 

Yet,  throughout,  their  patient  faith  never  flagged.  It 
is  the  most  wondrous  fact  of  it  all.  And  it  did  seem 
as  though  Providence  intervened  to  open  to  them 
havens  of  refuge  in  the  darkest  hours — in  Moslem  Spain 
in  the  eighth  century  of  Visigothic  persecution,  in 
Poland  in  the  eleventh  century  of  Crusade  ravage,  and 
in  Turkey  in  the  fifteenth  century,  when  monkish  hos- 
tility was  fast  hemming  them  in  and  shutting  all  doors 
of  escape. 

In  the  whole  survey  of  this  stirring  period  we  must 
recognize  that  while  there  were  many  martyrs  there 
were  some  traitors.  The  latter,  rather  than  the  former, 
contribute  the  tragedy  of  Israel.  Together  they  mark 
the  conflict  between  the  ideal  and  the  sordid — a  conflict 
that  is  going  on  still. 

So  the  study  of  this  epoch  may  help  the  Jew  of  to-day 
to  see  himself  mirrored.  It  thus  becomes  a  not  unim- 
portant element  in  his  religious  education. 

This  introduction  should  be  read  at  the  close  as  well 
as  at  the  opening  of  this  book,  for  it  is  a  sum  mar  y  of  its 
contents. 


vm 


Preface  to  the  New  Edition 


This  volume  continues  unbrokenly  the  History  of  the 
Jews  from  the  point  at  which  it  closed  in  A  Thousand 
Years  of  Jeivish  History.  To  refresh  the  memory, 
frequent  references  are  made  to  it,  indicated  by  the  ini- 
tials T.  Y. 

The  material  in  the  volume  falls  into  two  divisions, — 
history  and  literature.  The  pupils  may  find  the  history 
more  interesting  and  certainly  simpler ;  but  the  literature 
must  not  be  neglected,  for  the  purpose  of  this  series  of 
books  is  to  deepen  Jewish  consciousness.  It  will  be  no- 
ticed how  largely  the  Jews  were  involved  in  all  the  great 
world  movements  and  crises.  It  has,  therefore,  been 
found  advisable  to  outline  briefly  certain  events  of  gen- 
eral history  in  order  to  make  clear  the  relation  of  the 
Jews  to  them. 

A  final  volume.  Modern  Jezvish  History,  completes  the 
story  of  the  Jew  from  the  close  of  this  book  to  the  present 
day.  It  is  a  very  small  volume  and  could  be  included  in 
the  same  vear's  course  as  this  one. 


In  revising  this  work,  effort  has  been  made  to  simplify 
in  language  and  presentation.  Sub-titles  have  been  intro- 
duced within  each  chapter. 

The  notes  will  be  found  fuller ;  "a.  theme  for  discus- 
sion" has  been  placed  at  the  close  of  each  chapter.  The 
book  has  also  been  made  attractive  by  the  introduction 
of  pictures.  Credit  is  due  Mr.  Philip  Cowen  for  his 
painstaking  labors  in  obtaining  some  of  these  illustrations. 

Many  cross  references  are  interspersed  through  the 
book,  not  only  to  aid  the  memory,  but  also  to  bring  like 
conditions  in  different  eras  side  by  side. 

A  copious  Index  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  the  book. 


IX 


Contents 

Page 
Introduction    v 

Preface  to  revised   edition viii 

Maps  and  Illustrations xv 

Chronological   Tables    xvi 

Themes   for  Discussion 382 

Index 371 

BOOK  I.  THE  DECLINE  OF  THE  EASTERN 
ACADEMIES 

Chapter  I.    Charlemagne  and  His  Time. 

The  Franks— Charlemagne— Holy  Roman  Empire — 
Eastern  Roman  Empire.  Notes :  Passover 
and    Easter 19-24 

Chapter  II.  Israel  in  the  Moslem  Orient. 

Revival  of  Hebrev^   Poetry — Kalir — Prayer   in   Song. 

Notes:  Piyutim — A  Hebrevi'  Josephus 25-29 

Chapter  III.    The  Karaites. 

Back  to  the  Scripture — How  the  movement  arose — 
Anan — The  mistakes  of  Karaism — The  improve- 
ments of  Karaism.  Notes:  Karaites  and  the 
Messiah — Sahal — Rivalry  of  the  two  schools 30-36 

Chapter  IV.  Saadyah  Gaon  and  the  Two  Academies. 

Jewish  scholarship — The  Geoninv— Gaon  Saadyah — 
"Faith  and  Creed" — Closing  of  the  Eastern  Aca- 
demies.   Notes:    Responsa — Kalam — Geniza 37-45 

Chapter  V.    Chazars — The  Proselyte  Kingdom. 

How  the  Chazars  became  Jews — Influence  of  Juda- 
ism— Decline    of    the    Chazars 46-48 

Chapter  VI.  A  "Light"  in  Lands  of  Exile. 

The  Feudal  System  and  the  Jews— End  of  Prankish 
Empire — Jews  under  Charlemagne's  succes- 
sors— Rabenu  Gershom — A  Jewish  Synod.  Note: 
Monogamy     49-56 


X  CONTENTS 

BOOK  II.    SPAIN'S  GOLDEN  AGE. 
Chapter  VII.   Under  the  Caliphate  of  Cordova. 

Page 

Arabic  scholarship  and  civilization — From  Babylon 
to  Spain — Moses  ben  Chenoch — Chasdai  as  states- 
man— Chasdai  as  Jew.  Notes :  Kairuan  Acad- 
emy— Hebrew    Grammar 59-66 

Chapter  VIII.    Jews  as  Viziers. 

Moslem  disunion — Ibn  Nagdela,  Vizier  of  Granada — 
Ibn  Nagdela  as  "Nagid" — Distinguished  succes- 
sors— Decline  of  the  Moors — In  Christian  Castile. 
Note:   Ibn  Janach   and  Ibn   Migash 67-73 

Chapter  IX.    Ibn   Gabirol,   Poet   and   Philosopher. 

Ibn  Gabirol's  youth^Poems  :  "Night  Thoughts",  "Me- 
ditation on  Life",  "What  is  Man",  "Happy  he 
who  saw  of  old",  "A  Song  of  Redemption",  Royal 
Crown" — Ibn  Gabirol  as  philosopher  and  mo- 
ralist. Notes  :  Neo-Platonism — Scholasticism — 
"Source    of    Life" 74-83 

Chapter  X.   Bachya  and  Other  Moralists. 

A  moral  philosopher — "Duties  of  the  Heart" — Knowl- 
edge of  the  unseen — Humility — Faith — A  group 
of  moralists — Temptation — Business  integrity — 
Duties  to  non-Jews — Faith  and  kindness — The 
courage    of    humility — Miscellaneous    maxims....       84-92 

Chapter  XI.    Jehuda  Halevi. 

Poems  :  "A  Pair  of  Scissors",  "A  Needle",  "The  Earth 
in  Spring."  Some  prayer  poems — "Sabbath 
Hymn",  "Longing  for  Jerusalem",  "Voyage  to 
Jerusalem",  "Zionide". — The  Poetry  of  Religion — 
Zion — Halevi,  the  philosopher — Appreciation  of 
Mosque  and  Church — Pilgrimage  to  the  East. 
Notes:  Halevi  and  Philo — Revelation  v.  Reason.     93-106 

Chapter  XII.    Jewish  Achievements  in  Christian 

Spain. 

Political  and  social  standing — Benjamin  the  Explo- 
rer— Chasdai,  the  translator — Ibn  Daud,  scien- 
tist and  historian — Ibn  Ezra,  the  savant — Ibn 
Ezra  as  critic.  Notes  :  Biblical  criticism — Jewish 
travelers — Plato    v.    Aristotle 107-118 


CONTENTS  XI 


BOOK  III.   IN  CHRISTIAN  EUROPE. 
Chapter  XIII.    The  Crusades. 


Page 


Pious  Piligrimages — The  First  Crusade— Jewish 
victims  in  Germany — Jerusalem  taken — Second 
Crusade  —  Bernhard  of  Clairvaux  —  Another 
Synod — The  remaining  Crusades— 'Some  good 
results.     Note  :  Tosafist 121-129 

Chapter  XIV.  Rashi  and  His  Times. 

Education  in  France  and  Germany — Rashi's  Com- 
mentary on  the  Talmud— Rashi's  Commentary 
on  the  Bible— Rashi's  method  of  interpretation- 
Jew   and   Gentile.     Note:   Higher   Criticism 131-139 

Chapter  XV.  France,  North  and  South,  A  Contrast 
Origin   of  the   French  Kingdom — Southern   France — 
The   Kimchis — The   Tibbons— Northern    France- 
Jews   robbed   and   banished — Other   persecutions. 
Note :  Latin   140-14.S 

Chapter  XVI.    The  Zenith  of   Popish   Power. 
Pope  and  Emperor — The   Popes   and  the  Jews — The 
Badge — Massacre    of    Albigenses — The    monkish 
Orders.      Notes:    Christian    Ascetics — Morals    of 
the  Clergy    146-153 

Chapter  XVII.  Jewish  Life  in  German  States. 
A  Jewish  Troubadour— The  "Ritual  Murder"  slander 
— Another  Synod — The  "Empire" — The  Emperor's 
right  in  the  Jews — Meir  of  Rothenberg — "The 
Burning  of  the  Law."  Note:  The  Popes  and 
the   "Blood   Accusation" 154-165 

Chapter  XVIII.     How  the  Jews  Fared  in  England. 

Under  Norman  kings — "Blood  Accusation" — Under 
Plantagenet  kings — Tragedy  of  York  Castle — 
King  John — Henry  HI — Jews  banished  from  Eng- 
land. Notes:  Pre-expulsion  relics — Aaron  of  Lin- 
coln— Ritual  and  History 166-176 

BOOK  IV.  RATIONALISM  AND  MYSTICISM. 

Chapter  XIX.    Maimonides. 

Moslem  Unitarians — Forced  Converts — Physician  in 
Egypt — Writings  of  Maimonides — A  Jewish  Creed 
■^Summary  of  Jewish  Law.  Notes:  Saladin — 
"The  Great  Hand" 179-189 


xn  CONTENTS 

Chapter  XX.    "The  Guide  to  the  Perplexed" 

Page 
Religion  and  philosophy — God — Spirit  and  matter — 
Prophecy — Scripture — Influence  of  "The  Guide" 
— Some  general  teachings  of  Maimonides— His 
estimate  of  Christianity — His  ethical  will.  Note  : 
Philosophic  problems    190-198 

Chapter  XXI.    Maimunists  and  Anti-Maimunists. 

Maimuni  and  the  Jews  of  Arabia — A  strenuous  life — 
Maimuni's  critics — Opponents  of  rationalism — 
Bigotry's  dangerous  consequences.  Notes:  Jews 
and  Medicine — Maimonides   as   Physician 199-205 

Chap.  XXII.  Toleration  Declines  in  the  Peninsula. 

Portugal — Castile — New  laws  and  new  taxes— Aragon 
— Solomon  ben  Adret.  Notes  :  Tax-farming— Na- 
varre— Rationalists    and   Obscurantists 206-213 

Chap.  XXIII.   Nachmanides  and  "The  Disputation." 

The    mystic   versus   the   logician— His    human    side — 
"The  Disputation" — Nachmanides  banished — "My     , 
King"    214-221 

Chapter  XXIV.    The  Rise  of  Mysticism 

Mystics  good  and  bad— Kabala— Reaction  against 
philosophy  and  legalism— Influence  of  mysticism 
— Moses  de  Leon— The  Zohar — Methods  of  Kab- 
alistic  interpretation.  Notes  :  Age  of  the  Zohar — 
Zohar  and  the  "Disputations" 222-230 

Chapter  XXV.    The  Development  of  Kabala. 

God— Man— The    Messiah— Evil— Prayer— Providence  231-236 

Chapter  XXVI.    Expulsions  from  France. 

Union  of  separate  baronies— Attacks  on  the  Talmud 
—Jewish  physicians— The  Fifth  Crusade— Moses 
of  Coucy— First  large  expulsion— The  Shepherd 
Uprising— Another  expulsion  and  restoration- 
Last  banishment  from  France 237-245 

Chapter  XXVII.     Gersonides  and  Asherides:  A 
Contrast. 

Levi  ben  Gerson— Philosophy  of  Gersonides— Asher 
ben  Jechiel— Asheri's  ethical  teachings— Jacob 
bar  Asher's  Code  of  Law 246-253 


CONTENTS  XIU 

Page 


Chapter  XXVIII.    David  Alroy,  Messiah. 

Conditions  in  the  Orient— Resh  Galutha  of  Bagdad— 
The  Messianic  Hope— David  Alroy.  Note:  Mes- 
siah and  the  Messianic  Time 254-260 


BOOK  V.    SPAIN'S  IRON  AGE. 
Chapter  XXIX.     Castile's  Gathering  Storm. 

Pedro  the  Cruel — Civil  war  and  Jewish  massacre — 
Isaac  b.  Sheshat— Chasdai  Crescas— The  censure 
of  Alami — Deprived  of  criminal  jurisdiction — 1391. 
Notes:  Jewish  influence  in  the  Peninsula— Jewish 
astronomers 263-274 

Chapter  XXX.    The  Black  Plague. 

"Armleder"  and  other  persecutions — The  Black 
Plague— Wholesale  slaughter  in  German  States- 
Synod  of  1381— Demoralization  in  the  Church. 
Note  :  Alenu  275-282 

Chapter  XXXI.    Under  the  Shadow  of  the  Papacy. 

Better  treatment  in  Italy— A  Jewish  renaissance— 
Kalonymous— From  the  "Touchstone,"  Burden  of 
Jewish  Observance  on  a  Male,  A  Metaphor  of 
Life— Immanuel— Poems:  "Two  Minds,"  "Thine 
Eyes"— Imitator  of  Dante.  Notes  :  Jews  and  the 
Popes — Jewish  humor  283-292 

Chap.  XXXII.    Israel's  Further  Fortunes  in  Italy. 

In  the  Italian  Republics— Shem  in  the  tents  of 
Japheth— Elias  del  Medigo— Baderisi,  poet  and 
philosopher:  The  world  a  Sea,  Man,  the  Soul. 
Note :    Averroes    293-300 

Chapter  XXXIII.    The  Maranos. 

Forced  converts  "in  Spain— Defenders  of  Judaism— 
Anti-Jewish  laws  enforced— Another  "Disputa- 
tion" . 301-307 

Chapter  XXXIV.    Albo  and  His  "Ikkarim." 

Judaism's  Fundamentals:  Religious  Fear,  Religious 
Love,  Free  Will,  Omniscience,  Job,  Providence, 
Divine  Justice,  Knowledge  vs.  Experience,  Bless- 
ing, Forgiveness,  Prayer,  Repentance,  Faith, 
Prophecy,  God  and  Man,  diyine  attributes......  308-313 


xiv  CONTENTS 

Chapter  XXXV.     The  Hussite  Movement  and  Its 
Effect  on  Jewry. 

Page 
John  Huss— The  Hussites  and  the  Jews— Persecutions 
in  Austria — Simon   of  Trent.     Note:   "Blood  Ac- 
cusation"      314-321 

Chapter  XXXVI.    The  Rise  of  Poland  and  the  Fall 
OF  Rome. 

Jews  form  Poland's  middle  class — Casimir's  charter — 
John  of  Capistrano,  Inquisitor  of  the  Jews — The 
Byzantine  Empire — Conquered  by  the  Turks — 
Turkey  becomes  a  haven  for  the  Jews.  Notes: 
The  "Host" — Greek  Church 322-331 

Chapter  XXXVII.    The  Spanish  Inquisition. 

Union  of  Aragon  and  Castile— Origin  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion—The Spanish  Inquisition— The  first  Auto- 
da-fe — Torquemada    332-343 

Chapter  XXXVII.     The  Spanish  Expulsion. 

Granada  passes  from  Moslem  to  Christian— Abarba- 
nel— Jews  expelled  in  1492— Havens  of  refuge- 
Lines  on  the  Expulsion 344-352 

Chapter  XXXIX.     Last  Years  in   Portugal. 

Spanish  refugees  in  Portugal— Portuguese  Expulsion 
—David  Reubeni  and  Solomon  Molcho— Portu- 
guese Inquisition — Later  fortunes  of  the  Sep- 
hardim.     Note:  Sephardic  Ritual 353-361 

Chapter  XL.     The  Discovery  of  America. 

Jewish  scientists  in  the  Peninsula— Columbus  aided 
by  Jews — De  Torres — Exploration  and  settlement 
in  America.      Note  :  Coinage  Table 362-370 


Illustrations  and  Maps. 

Page 
Christopher  Columbus   at   the   Court   of   Ferdinand   and 

Isabella    Frontispiece 

From    painting    in    Metropolitan    Museum    of    Art 
by    Vacslav    von    Brozik. 

In  the  Ghetto  of  Marburg 18 

From    the    "Jewish    Encyclopedia." 

Jewish  Costumes  of  the  Middle  Ages 24 

From    H.    Weiss'    "Kostumkunde." 

Interior  of  Synagogue  in  Toledo,  built  in  1357 58 

From  Lindo's  "History  of  the  Jews  of  Spain  and  Portugal." 

The  Synagogue  at  Erfurt,  1357 66 

After  a  MS.  history  by  Ratsmeister  Friese,   from  Jaraczew- 
sky's   "Geschichte   der   Juden   in    Erfurt." 

Isaac  Alfassi   71 

From    a     traditional    portrait.      "Jewish     Encyclopedia." 

The  Minnesinger  Suesskind  von  Trimberg 120 

From    a    thirteenth    century    manuscript. 

Interior  of  the  Synagogue  at  Worms 130 

From    Adolph    Kohut's    "Geschichte    der    deutschen    Juden." 

The  Chapel  of  Rashi  at  Worms 135 

[The    same.] 

Exterior  of  the  Synagogue  at  Regensburg 153 

From  Meyer's  "Zur  Geschichte  der  Judentum  in  Regensburg." 

Schames  Alley  in  Prague 156 

From    "Das    Prager    Ghetto." 

Interior  of  the  Alt-Neu  Synagogue  in  Prague 163 

From    a    Photograph. 

The  House   of  Aaron   of  Lincoln 174 

From    Hyamson's    "History    of    the   Jews   of    England." 

Moses  Maimonides,  with  autograph 178 

Moses'  Hall,   Bury   St.   Edmunds 189 

From  Traill's  "Social  England." 

Jews  Sworn  in  Court 198 

Note  Jewish   Badges  on  sleeve   or  shoulder.     After  a   wood- 
cut,   Augsburg,    1509. 

A  "Disputation"  between  Christian  and  Jewish  Scholars     217 

The  Ideal  Type  of  Man 232 

From    Ginsburg's    "The    Kabala." 


XVI 

Page 
The  Old  Cemetery  in   Prague 258 

A  row  of  graves  of  disciples  of  Rabbi   Loew. 
From  Jerabek's  "Der  alte  Prager  Friedhof." 

The  Golden  Tower  of  Seville 262 

Used  as   a   residence   by   Jewish   financiers   of   the   Kings   of 
Castile. — "Jewish    Encyclopedia." 

The  Ghetto  of  Nickelsberg 277 

"Jewish   Encyclopedia." 

In  the  Ghetto  of  Sienna 303 

From  "Ost  und  West." 

Procession  of  Jews  to  Pope  Martin  V 317 

From    Kohut's    "Geschichte    der    deutschen    Juden." 

Methods  of  Torture  of  the  Inquisition 339 

From    Picart's    "Ceremonies    and   Religious    Customs   of    the 
World." 

Isaac  Abarbanel   346 

From   a   traditional   portrait. 

Autograph  of  Solomon  Molcho 357 

From    the    "Jewish    Encyclopedia." 

Caricature  of  Isaac  of  Norwich 361 

Head    of    a    "Roll    of    the    Jews"    of    1233,    preserved    in    the 

English     Record     Office,     showing     receipt     of     sums     from 

various     Jews.       From     Traill's     "Social     England." 

An  Astrolabe    364 

From    "Ma'ase    Tobia,"    1707. 

MAPS 

Europe  from  800-1100  A.C.E     Showing  the  route  of  the 
Crusades Front  Cover 

Iberian  Peninsula,  showing  where  Jews  resided  before 
the  Expulsion    Back  Cover 

Distribution    of   the   Jews    of   England   before    the    Ex- 
pulsion        169 

Where  Jewish   Communities  existed  in  Italy 296 

CHRONOLOGICAL    TABLES 

Decline  of  the  Eastern  Academies 17 

Spain's    Golden    Age 57 

In  Christian  Eufope 119 

Rationalism    and    Mysticism 177 

Spain's   Iron   Age 261 


17 


POOK    I. 
DECLINE  OF  THZ  EASTERN  ACADEMIES 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 
Western  Europe 
End  of  Roman  Em- 


pire 


476 


Byzantine    Empire.   Jewish    Contempo- 
raries  and   Events. 


Holy     Roman     Em- 

p  ro     800 

Charlemagne     "Ro-         | 
man    Emperoi"...   303 


Lou^s  t'le  Pious. 


814 


Partition  of  Ver- 
dun, Beginning  of 
Germany    843 


Charles  the  Bald. 
Founder  of  French 
Monarchy    875 

End  of  Carlovlnglan 
Empre    888 

Charles  the  S'mple 
confiscates  Jew- 
ish    property 914 

Otto  the  Great 
(Emperor)  recov- 
ers   Italy     962 

Hugh  Capet,  King 
of   France   987 


Leo,  the  Icon  o- 
clast,  persecutes 
the  Jews    717 


Council  of  NIcaea, 
Image  worship 
resanctloned    842 

Council  of  Meaux 
Anti-Jewish  Bish- 
op   Amolo 849 

Basileus    I    867 


Judah  the  Blind, 
Gaon  of  Sora 759 

Anan  founds  Kara- 
ism,   about    770 

Isaac  sent  by  Chzu"- 
lemagnc  to  Ha- 
roun    al    Raschid.  797 

Chazars  embrace 
Judaism     740 

Kal r  and  the  Pay- 
etanlm    about 800 

Spread   of   Karaism  825 


Saadyah  Gaon   892 

Extinction  of  Ex- 
ilarchate    940 

Close  of  Sora  Acad- 
emy        948 

Transfer  of  Jewish 
Schools  to  Spain, 
about     950 

R.  Gershom   960 

Fall  of  Chazar  King- 
dom      970 


Gershom's    Synod . .  IOC 
Close   of   Pumbe- 
ditha   Academy . . .  103.^ 


i8 


GHETTO  OF  MARBURG 


19 

BOOK  I.    DECLINE  OF  THE  EASTERN  ACADEMIES. 

CHAPTER     I 
CHARLEMAGNE  AND  HIS  TIME. 

This  volume  opens  at  the  end  of  the  eighth  century. 
The  centre  of  gravity  of  the  Jews  was  still  in  the  East ; 
but  their  best  work  there  was  almost  done.  We  see 
them  joining  the  great  human  tide  that  was  moving 
steadily  westward. 

The  Spanish  Peninsula  was  now  largely  Mohamme- 
dan. Under  the  sway  of  cultured  and  enlightened 
Moors  (as  the  Mohammedans  in  Spain  were  called) 
that  which  had  been  to  them  a  land  of  iron  persecution 
became  the  centre  of  benevolent  liberalism.  We  shall 
see  how  this  favorable  environment  created  a  golden 
era  for  Israel.  This  volume  will  be  largely  concerned 
with  their  life  and  their  literary  achievements  in  Spain. 

The  rest  of  Europe  was  Christian  or  fast  becoming 
so ;  for,  when  a  monarch  accepted  the  Cross,  he  also 
accepted  it  for  his  nation,  and  even  imposed  it  upon  the 
lands  he  conquered.  These  became  Christian  in  name, 
though  for  a  long  time  remaining  pagan  in  fact. 

As  the  lands  around  the  Mediterranean  were  the  ear- 
liest civilized  and  populated,  they  became  the  earliest  of 
Jewish  settlement.  So  we  shall  hear  nothing  of  our 
brethren  in  Scandinavia  in  the  whole  period  covered  by 
this  work  and  little  of  them  in  Northeastern  Europe. 

Life  for  the  Jews  was  made  tolerable  but  scarcely 
enjoyable  among  the  Goths,  Allemani  and  Lombards, 
who  broke  up  the  Western  Roman  Empire,  But  we 
shall   witness   further   "breakings  up"   and   re-arranging 


20  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

of  the  map  of  Europe,  until  the  different  peoples  come 
to  group  themselves  into  the  European  nations  as  we 
know  them  to-day. 

The  Franks. 

Of  all  of  these  different  tribes  or  races  that  drifted 
from  the  north  and  east,  the  most  powerful  were  the 
Franks,  already  referred  to  in  T.Y.,  p.  288.  But  we 
must  say  a  little  more  about  them  and  their  develop- 
ment, for  they  largely  affected  Jewish  life.  Under 
one  of  their  kings,  Clovis  (456),  their  dominion  steadily 
spread  on  both  sides  of  the  Rhine,  covering  pretty  much 
of  what  is  now  France  and  Germany.  By  accepting 
Christianity  in  its  orthodox  or  catholic  form  (T.  Y .,  p. 
284),  he  received  the  support  of  its  influential  clergy, 
while  the  Vandals  in  Italy  and  the  Ostragoths  in  Africa, 
espousing  Arian  Christianity  {T.Y.,  p.  243),  that  was 
accepted  only  by  a  small  minority,  were  steadily  losing 
ground. 

The  next  great  Frank  was  styled  Martel,  meaning 
"The  Hammer,"  for  a  reason  similar  to  that  which 
earned  this  title  for  one  of  Israel's  early  Judges,  Gideon, 
and  one  of  their  late  leaders,  Judas,  the  Maccahce. 
(Both  these  names  mean  "Hammer.")  Charles  Martel 
directed  sledge  hammer  blows  against  the  Arabs,  check- 
ing their  further  advance  at  Poictiers ;  for  it  was  con- 
sidered a  duty,  both  religious  and  patriotic,  to  drive 
back  the  "heathen,"  as  most  non-Christian  peoples  were 
styled. 

Charlemagne. 

But  it  is  his  grandson  with  whom  we  are  concerned, 
Charlemagne,     He   pushed   his   conquests   against   Sax- 


CHARLEMAGNE    AND     HIS    TIME  21 

ons,  Lombards  and  Huns,  keeping  the  Moors  beyond  the 
Pyrenees.  But  he  came  down  further  and  added  North- 
ern Italy  to  the  Prankish  Empire,  crowning  his  son  as 
King  of  Rome.  So  his  empire  extended  from  the  Medi- 
terranean to  the  North  Sea.  (See  map  in  front).  We 
shall  see  the  tremendous  consequence  of  this  union  of 
North  and  South  Europe  in  many  ways. 

But  Charlemagne  was  more  than  a  great  conqueror, 
he  was  a  great  man.  He  fully  deserved  this  name, 
which  means  Charles  the  Great.  He  lines  up  with  the 
few  who  have  directed  the  world's  destinies.  He 
was  broad  minded  and  enlightened.  In  an  age  of  des- 
potism he  recognized  the  civil  rights  of  his  subjects, 
and  in  an  age  of  ignorance  he  raised  their  social  status, 
promoting  education,  art,  manufacture  and  commerce. 
A  scholar  himself,  speaking  Latin  and  Greek,  he  en- 
couraged scholars  to  settle  in  his  empire. 

Is  it  surprising  that  under  such  a  ruler  the  status  of 
the  Jews  distinctly  improved?  He  was  too  large  a  man 
to  persecute  them  or  even  treat  them  contemptu- 
ously. A  good  Christian  himself,  and  establishing 
bishoprics  throughout  his  dominions,  his  policy  towards 
them  was  entirely  opposed  to  the  restrictions  of  Church 
'Councils.  In  the  domain  of  commerce,  for  which  cir- 
cumstances best  fitted  the  Jews  (see  T.  Y .,  p.  286),  they 
were  unhampered  by  bigoted  restrictions,  though  a 
severe  oath  was  imposed  upon  them  in  testifying  against 
Christians.  Greater  freedom  of  travel  being  allowed 
them,  they  began  to  spread  over  Germany  and  to  drift 
towards  Eastern  Europe.  Charlemagne's  Mohammedan 
contemporary,  Haroun  Al  Raschid,  best  known  to  read- 
ers through  "The  Arabian  Nights,"  sent  ambassadors 
to  pay  him  homage.  He  chose  Isaac,  a  Jew,  as  one  of 
an  embassy  to  Al  Raschid's  court  at  Bagdad,  entrusted 


22  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

with   secrets  of    State;  his   colleagues   dying,    Isaac   re- 
turned as  sole  ambassador. 

One  of  Charlemagne's  requests  to  the  Caliph  in  fact 
concerned  the  welfare  of  the  Jews  and  illustrates  again 
his  sense  of  duty  to  further  the  higher  welfare  of  all 
people  under  his  sway.  He  asked  for  a  learned  Baby- 
lonian Jew  to  direct  the  religious  and  educational  needs 
of  the  Jews  of  the  Frankish  Empire.  So  one  Machir 
was  sent,,  who  became  the  head  of  the  congregation  and 
founder  of  the  Academy  of  Narbonne.  With  the  same 
purpose  in  view,  he  transplanted  the  learned  Kalonymos 
family  from  Lucca  to  Mayence.  For  he  sufficiently 
appreciated  his  Jewish^  subjects  to  wish  them  to  have 
their  sources  of  learning  and  authority  within  his  own 
dominions,  with  a  centre  on  each  side  of  the  Rhine. 

Holy  Roman 
Empire. 

We  will  complete  this  general  survey  with  that  event 
in  Charlemagne's  career  that  marks  the  opening  of  a 
new  epoch  for  Europe  and  that  was  to  touch  the  Jew 
in  unexpected  ways.  While  he  was  worshipping  in  St. 
Peter's  at  Rome  on  Christmas,  800,  Pope  Leo  III  set  a 
crown  upon  his  head  and  declared  him  Carolus  Augus- 
tus, Roman  emperor. 

What  did  it  mean?  It  meant  the  revival  of  the  de- 
funct Roman  Empire  in  name  at  least  and  made  it  the 
background  and  setting  af  the  Roman  Church — The 
Hol\'  Roman  Empire.  While  bringing  no  added  prov- 
inces, the  halo  of  the  revived  title  brought  tremendous 
prestige.  As  the  old  empire  had  come  to  represent 
almost  the  whole  civilized  world  politically,  so  Chris- 
tianity now  claimed  control  of  the  world  spiritually. 
The    theorv   now    was :     One    Church,    one    State,    each 


CHARLEMAGNK     AND     IMS     TIME  27, 

• 

supporting  the  other.  Mark,  too,  it  was  the  Pope  ( T.  V. 
p.  285),  who  crowned  the  Emperor.  This  meant  the 
Church's  claim  of  superior  sway.  That  claim  was  to 
make  stirring  doings  in  the  centuries  following. 

So,  by  this  adroit  act  of  a  far-seeing  Pope,  a  new 
page  in  history  began. 

Eastern 
Roman  Empire. 

This  "arrangement"  did  not  include  the  eastern  half 
of  the  Roman  Empire — the  Byzantine,  with  its  capital 
at  Constantinople  ;  for,  although  it  extended  from  Greece 
to  Asia  Minor,  it  was  becoming  more  of  a  negligible 
quantity.  It  had  steadily  declined  since  the  days  of  Jus- 
tinian, who  flourished  in  the  sixth  century  (T.  Y.  pp.  281- 
2).  It  was  not  so  successful  as  the  Prankish  Empire  in 
keeping  ofif  the  "infidel."  It  had  not  a  IMartel.  So,  in 
the  seventh  century  the  Mohammedans  took  from  it 
Judea,  Syria  and  Egypt.  They  were  steadily  creeping 
towards  Constantinople. 

In  the  eighth  century,  one  of  its  Emperors,  Leo,  be- 
came known  as  "The  Iconoclast,"  (image  breaker),  for 
he  broke  the  images  in  the  churches  in  answer  to  the 
taunt  that  he  was  an  idolater  by  his  Moslem  enemies. 
He  then  persecuted  the  Hebrews  in  response  to  the  cry 
that  he  had  become  a  "Jew" — raised  by  his  Christian 
friends,  because  forsooth  he  had  treated  them  tolerantly ! 
This  meant  for  our  ancestors  exile  or  Christian  disguise 
until  the  storm  blew  over.  In  842  the  Church  Council 
at  Nicaea  reintroduced  image  worship,  but  did  not  abolish 
Jewish  persecution.  So  Christianity  was  to  continue 
for  many  centuries  "a  baptized  paganism,"  as  a  Chris- 
tian divine  has  styled  'it. 

Byzantine  Jews,  though  denied  public  office  and  other 


24 


HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 


privileges,  were  not  disturbed   in   their  occupations,   of 
which  the  silk  industry  was  chief. 

Notes  and  References. 

Passover  and  Easter. 

It  was  at  the  dififerent  councils  held  at  Nicsea  that  the 
doctrine  of  the  Christian  Church  was  gradually  formu- 
lated, hence  known  as  the  "Nicene  Creed." 

At  the  first  council,  in  325,  it  was  decided  that  the 
date  for  Easter  should  no  longer  be  the  first  day  of 
Passover — Nisan  15th — but  should  be  chosen  by  a  dif- 
ferent calculation.  This  was  one  of  many  steps  taken 
to  widen  the  gulf  between  Judaism  and  Christianity. 

See  Bryce's  The  Holy  Roman  Empire  for  a  picture  of 
the  complete  evolution  of  Christian  Rome  from  pagan 
Rome. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

A  critic  has  said  that  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  was 
neither  holy,  Roman  nor  an  Empire.  Analyze  this 
criticism. 


JEWISH  COSTUMES  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 


25 

CHATTER    IL 
ISRAEL   IN  THE  MOSLEM  ORIENT. 

Let  us  now  turn  from  Europe  to  Asia.  By  the  time 
Charlemagne  was  Emperor  the  Mohammedan  faith  had 
spread  with  great  strides  and  already  had  Caliphates 
in  three  continents — at  Bagdad,  Cairo  and  Cordova. 
(Caliph  means  successor:  "prince  of  the  faithful"  was 
another  title  given  to  the  successors  of  Mahomet.)  The 
Jews  gladly  settled  under  their  sway,  for  they  found  that 
increase  of  power  which  made  the  Christian  despotic  left 
the  Moslem  tolerant.  So  Jerusalem,  now  under  the  rule 
of  the  Church,  had  a  declining  Jewish  population  of  but 
mediocre  learning,  telling  only  of  glory  that  had  been. 

Bagdad,  on  the  Tigris,  enlarged  and  beautified  by 
Haroun  Al  Raschid,  became  a  centre  of  commerce  and 
learning  and  housed  a  thousand  Jewish  families,  with 
a  college;  Aleppo  in  Syria  had  half  as  many  again. 
The  seat  of  old  Babylonia,  between  the  Euphrates  and 
the  Tigris,  was  their  densest  centre  and  the  academies 
of  Sora  and  Pumbeditha  still  had  a  couple  more  cen- 
turies of  life — with  the  "Prince  of  the  Exile"  as  much 
a  grandee  as  ever.  (T.  Y.,  pp.  231,  309).  "Exile"  was 
a  general  term  for  all  those  lands  of  sojourn  in  which 
Israel  took  refuge  after  they  lost  Judaea.  Some  of  our 
brethren  had  drifted  as  far  as  India.  (A  small  native 
group  of  black  Jews,  called  Beni-Israel,  are  still  found 
there). 

Though  the  first  Caliphs  were  somewhat  masterful  in 
forcing  forward  the  new  Faith  they  were,  on  the  whole, 
both  tolerant  and  broad.  More  than  that,  they  were  lovers 
of  culture,  and  some  were  more  deeply  interested  in 
Arabic  poetry  than  in  the  Koran.     They  became  patrons 


26  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

of  literature  and  helped  to  usher  in  a  new  era  of  scholar- 
ship and  letters  that  may  be  compared  with  the  Alex- 
andrian era  of  Greek  culture,  some  eight  centuries 
earlier.  As  the  Jew  had  contributed  toward  the  former, 
so  likewise  he  shared  in  the  latter.  Arabic  became  what 
Greek  had  been  then — the  language  of  learning  and 
culture.  Now  studied  by  the  Jew,  it  was  later  to  bear 
fruit  in  a  splendid  Arabic-Jewish  literature. 

Revival  of 
Hebrew  Poetry. 

This  favorable  environment  also  brought  about  a  re- 
naissance of  Hebrew.  A  school  of  Jewish  poetry  sprung 
up  once  more.  Israel  was  again  to  take  up  the  lyre  that 
he  had  disconsolately  hung  on  the  willows  of  Babylon. 
The  poetry  that  began  to  flow  from  Jewish  pens  still 
made  religion  its  main  theme :  "I  will  sing  tinto  the  Lord 
as  long  as  I  live."  Much  of  this  poetry  was  of  a  litur- 
gical character,  that  is,  it  went  to  enrich  the  service  of 
the  synagogue.  They  wrote  particularly  for  the  Rosh 
Hashana  and  Yom  Kippur  service.  These  solemn  days 
bfl:'ered  opportunities  for  a  grand  survey  of  Israel's  past 
and  for  hopeful  visions  of  God's  enduring  providence. 
We  might  say  that  the  Jews  contributed  poetry  to  the 
divine  service  as  enthusiastically  as  Christian  artists 
painted  the  "holy  family." 

Kallr. 

The  most  prolific  writer  of  liturgical  poetry  was 
Kalir  of  Palestine.  There  still  exist  over  two  hundred 
of  his  poems  in  festival  prayer-books  and  in  chants  for 
fast  and  penitential  days.  The  Midrashim  furnished 
much  of  the  material  not  only  for  his  prayers,  but  also 
for  his  acrostics  and  his  riddles.      (Midrash  was  the  ex- 


ISRAEL    IN     THE    MOSLEM     ORIENT  2'J 

pounding  of  the  Scriptures  in  a  homiletic  way.)  Rut 
Kalir  was  only  an  advance  herald  of  greater  poets  to 
come. 

With  the  steady  additions  of  poems  of  this  and  later 
days,  the  Jewish  Liturgy  not  only  hecame  amplified, 
but  the  earlier  simple  prayer-book  grew  into  a  very 
complex  ritual.  The  rhymed  acrostics  and  metrical 
compositions — piyu\\\n  as  they  were  called — lacked  both 
the  grandeur  and  the  simplicity  of  the  Psalms.  They 
failed  to  quicken  the  spirit  of  worship.  Ingenious  and 
artificial  twists  impede  devotion.  The  tendency  today 
has  been  to  simplify  the  Ritual  by  omitting  them. 

Prayer 
in  Song. 

These  metrical  prayers  gradually  fostered  a  custom 
that  has  taken  deep  root  in  the  Jewish  service.  The 
prayers  were  chanted,  so  that  musical  rendition  came 
to  be  a  dominant  feature.  Music,  it  is  true,  ever  since 
the  days  of  the  Second  Temple  and  before,  was  an  in- 
tegral part  of  Jewish  worship.  Two  hundred  singers 
returned  from  Babylon  to  s!n^  a^ain  the  songs  of  Zion 
The  Psalms  are  grouped  as  song  services.  Yet  this 
was  somcthn-^  very  different  from  the  chanting  of  thes  • 
later  days.  The  Cliacan  was  an  overseer  who  at  first 
fulfilled  humble  dut'es  for  the  S^.nagogue  and  the  com- 
munity ;  but  Ir.tcr  he  recit?  1  the  prayers.  Still  later  he 
chanted  them  and  was  st  led  a  "cantor."  This  cantel- 
lation  was  called  CJiazaniiiJi  after  his  original  title; 
Charsan.  For  the  sake  of  a  melodious  voice  many  faults 
of  character  were  overlooked.  This  was  detrimental  to 
the  influence  this  office  should  wield.  Occasionally,  too, 
the  cantor  would  introduce  melodies  from  sources  not 
in  high  esteem. 


^8  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

Let  US  hasten  to  add,  this  by  no  means  characterized 
all  the  Chazanim  of  the  olden  time.  Some  wrote  the 
Piyutim  they  intoned.  Some  were  learned  in  the  Law. 
At  his  best,  the  Chazan  was  styled  "the  messenger  of 
the  congregation,"  who  had  to  wrestle  in  prayer  on  its 
behalf. 

We  will  close  this  chapter  with  Alice  Lucas'  transla- 
tion of  one  of  Kalir's  poems : 

Palms  and  Myrtles. 
(Hymn  for  the  first  day  of  Tabernacles.) 

Thy  praise,  O  Lord,  will  I  proclaim 
In  hymns  unto  Thy  glorious  name. 
O  Thou  Redeemer,  Lord  and  King, 
Redemption  to  thy  faithful  bring! 
Before  Thine  altar  they  rejoice 
With  branch  of  palm,  and  myrtle-stem, 
To  Thee  they  raise  the  prayerful  voice — 
Have  mercy,  save  and  prosper  them. 

May'st  Thou  in  mercy  manifold, 
Dear  unto  Thee  Thy  people  hold. 
When  at  Thy  gate  they  bend  the  knee, 
And  worship  and  acknowledge  Thee : 
Do  Thou  their  heart's  desire  fulfill, 
Rejoice  with  them  in  love  this  day, 
Forgive  their  sins  and  thoughts  of  ill, 
And  their  transgressions  cast  away. 

They  overflow  with  prayer  and  praise 
To  Him,  who  knows  the  future  days. 
Have  mercy  Thou,  and  hear  the  prayer 
Of  those  who  palms  and  myrtle  bear. 
Th-e,  day  and  night  they  sanctify 
And  in  perpetual  song  adore, 
Like  to  the  heavenly  host,  they  cry: 
"Blessed  art  Thou  for  evermore." 


ISRAEL    IN    THE    MOSLEM     ORIENT  29 

We  shall  see  presently  that  the  great  poetry  of  Israel 
was  not  produced  in  Asia,  but  in  Europe,  where  their 
life  interest  was  gradually  centering. 

Notes  and  References. 
Piyittiui. 

lose  ben  Jose  of  Palestine  was  one  of  the  earliest  of 
thi's  school  of  liturgical  poets,  taking  us  back  to  the  sixth 
century.  That  Passover  Hagada  poem,  "And  It  Hap- 
pened in  the  Middle  of  the  Night,"  is  ascribed  to  him. 

The  ritual  chant  is  much  older  than  what  are  called 
the  traditional  melodies,  which  are  German. 

A  favorite  theme  of  early  Jewish  poets  was  the  613 
precepts,  alphabetically  arranged. 

See  Zunz  in  his  Litcratnr  Gcschichte  dcr  Synogagalcn 
Pocsic,  pp.  29-64. 
Kalir. 

The  involved  Piyutim  of  Kalir  are  found  in  the  Ash- 
kenaz  (German)  ritual;  the  simpler  Spanish  Piyutim  are 
found  mostly  in  the  Sephardic  ritual. 

See  prayer  book  for  New  Year  and  Atonement,  for 
which  special  translations  have  been  made,  published  by 
the  Routledge  Co.,  London.  Those  Reform  communi- 
ties that  no  longer  use  the  orthodox  ritual  for  worship 
should  still  use  it  for  study. 

A  Hebrew  Josephus. 

To  this  period,  about  940,  also  belongs  a  rather  in- 
ferior summary  of  Jewish  history,  from  the  Exile  to  the 
Temple's  fall.  Largely  based  on  Josephus,  the  Apo- 
crypha and  other  works  in  Greek,  it  was  later  translated 
from  the  Arabic  into  Hebrew  and  expanded.  It  was 
styled  Josippon.  It  is  rather  a  pity  that  the  Jews  studied 
it  to  the  neglect  of  its  more  historic  prototype.  Christian 
Europe  read  it,  too. 
Theme  for  Discussion:  " 

The  function  of  music  in  religion. 


30  HISTORY     OF     THE      MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

CHAPTER     III. 

THE    KARAITES. 
Back  to  the 
Scriptures. 

Now  that  the  Tahnud  was  a  finished  product,  the  gen- 
eration of  scholars  succeeding  its  editors,  called  Gconun 
(Excellencies),  had  not  the  authority  to  modify  its  laws; 
they  could  only  explain  them.  These  laws  had  become  very 
voluminous.  While  the  bulk  of  Jewry  yielded  faithful 
obedience  to  rabbinic  precept,  there  appeared  a  protest- 
ing few.  There  always  had  been — since  the  days  of  the 
Sadducees.  (T.  Y.,  p.  79).  Many  chafed  against  the 
complicated  and  minute  behests  of  the  Talmud.  In  the 
eighth  century  the  cry  arose,  "Back  to  the  Scriptures," 
and  to  its  few  and  simple  commands  ;  and  it  would  not  be 
downed.  We  shall  see  this  demand  now  develop  into  a 
religious  party  styled  Karaites,  that  is  Scripturalists, 
which  exercised  a  deep  influence  on  Judaism  and  which 
survives  as  a  small  sect  to  this  day. 

How  the 
Movement  Arose. 

In  studying  a  movement  it  is  always  well  to  distinguish 
between  the  general  cause  and  the  immediate  occasion. 
The  general  cause  for  the  Karaitic  movement  lay  in  the 
fact  that  there  grew  up  many  independent  thinkers  who 
would  not  yield  blind  obedience  to  ancient  authority. 
They  wanted  to  sift  the  evidence  anew  for  themselves 
as  to  the  reasonableness  and  validity  of  accepted  beliefs 
and  observances.  Such  natures  are  the  progressives, 
sometimes  styled  liberab,  sometimes  radicals.  Tney 
appear  in  nearly  all  ages  and  in  nearly  all  religions.  The 
existence  of   such  persons  within   the   fold  of  Judaism 


TIi;-.      KARAITES  3^ 

was  bound  eventually  to  lead  to  a  protest  of  some  kind. 
It  did  now.  It  seemed  to  these  critics  that  the  original 
laws  of  the  Bible  had  become  lost  or  obscured  in  the 
minute  rabbinic  rites  and  forms  indirectly  deduced  from 
them.  Rabbini.^m  had  over-reached  itself.  The  time  was 
ripe  and  the  conditions  complete  for  a  change.  It  awaited 
but  the  incident  to  organize  them  into  action.  What  was 
the  immediate  occasion? 

Anan. 

In  762  the  Resh  Galutha  (chief  of  the  exile),  or  to 
gA'e  him  his  secular  title,  the  Exilarch,  died  without  issue. 
As  it  had  become  a  hereditary  office  since  the  time  of 
Bostani  (640),  the  position  should  have  gone  to  the  next 
of  kin,  the  late  prince's  nephew,  Anan.  But  the  heads  of 
the  two  academies,  Sora  and  Pumbeditha,  in  whom  the 
power  of  appointment  lay,  passed  Anan  by  and  installed 
his  younger  brother  in  office. 

Conflict  arose,  and  a  party  rallied  around  Anan,  who 
left  Babylonia  and  settled  in  Jerusalem.  He  had  also 
been  of  that  liberal  class  that  chafed  against  the  old  Rab- 
binical code  of  laws  explained  above.  Perhaps  this  was 
the  cause  of  his  rejection.  In  any  event  the  treatment 
intensified  his  anti-Talmudic  tendency,  for  beliefs  are 
often  afi^ected  by  events. 

He  now  started  a  new  movement  in  Judaism  embody- 
ing the  idea  of  rejection  of  all  post-biblical  laws.  The 
programme  sounded  attractive.  So  was  the  man.  Many 
flocked  to  his  standard.  With  the  watchword  "Back  to 
Scripture," — all  later  law,  contained  in  Mishna  and  Ge- 
mara,  the  developed  product  of  ages,  was  rejected  at  one 
fell  swoop.  Henceforward  they  were  to  accept  as  their 
religious  authority  only  the  text  of  the  Bible,  or  rather 
of  the  Mosaic  Law — Mikra — from  Kara  to  read — hence 
the  name  later  acquired  by  the  new  sect,  Karaites. 


;^2  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

Now  one  reason  why  the  rabbis  had  added  so  many 
rules  to  those  in  the  Bible,  though  derived  from  them, 
was  to  meet  the  growing  needs  of  practical  life.  Nat- 
urally the  Bible  did  not  contain  the  detail  regulations  to 
satisfy  the  changing  wants  of  every  age.  This  the  Kara- 
ites all  too  soon  discovered.  Though  they  abandoned 
these  rabbinic  institutes  and  went  back  to  the  Bible,  they 
also  did  not  find  it  contained  sufficient  regulations  to 
cover  all  needs.  They  had,  therefore,  to  resort  to  the 
very  same  procedure  of  deducing  new  law  from  the 
Scripture,  which  they  had  condemned  in  the  Rabbanite. 
Their  means  of  evolving  such  laws  from  the  Bible  were 
just  as  arbitrary  and  later  grew  just  as  burdensome  as 
those  they  rejected.  In  fact,  they  adopted  the  same  gen- 
eral rules  of  interpretation  found  in  the  Mishna.  Even 
so,  it  was  not  possible  to  reject  every  post-biblical  law. 

The  Mistakes 
of  Karaism. 

Here  are  some  of  the  regulations  of  this  new  school 
of  Judaism.  The  fixed-  Calendar  of  Hillel  II  drawn  up 
in  the  year  359  (T.  Y.,  pp.  186,  234,  243)  was  rejected 
and  resort  was  once  more  made  to  the  more  primitive 
method  of  observing  the  seasons  by  direct  observation  of 
the  phases  of  the  moon — a  retrogressive  step.  If  the  rab- 
binic Sabbath  laws  had  been  strict,  those  of  the  Karaites 
were  still  more  severe.  The  sick  must  not  receive  their 
medicine  ;  the  people  must  not  leave  their  homes  (unless 
they  lived  as  a  separate  community)  ;  the  food  must  not 
be  warmed,  nor  a  fire  kindled,  even  by  a  non-Jew,  on  the 
holy  Sabbath  day. 

The  degrees  of  relationship  within  which  marriage  was 
prohibited  were  extended  beyond  biblical  and  Talmudic 


THE     KARAITES  33 

law,  to  include  uncle  and  niece  and  the  step-children  of 
different  parents. 

It  is  always  easier  to  diagnose  a  disease  than  to  find 
a  remedy.  We  must  not  be  surprised  then  that  in  their 
rejection  or  modification  of  some  Jewish  practices,  Anan 
and  his  followers  showed  very  unequal  judgment.  Their 
laying  aside  the  Tephillin  (phylacteries)  may  have  been 
in  the  interest  of  the  metaphoric  and  spiritual  interpreta- 
tion of  the  precepts  to  "bind  them  upon  the  hand  and 
make  them  as  a  memorial  before  the  eyes."  We  can 
understand,  too,  the  compilation  of  a  prayer-book  made 
up  wholly  of  biblical  selections.  But  what  shall  we  say 
of  the  striking  from  the  calendar  of  the  Feast  of  Ha- 
nukkah  because  it  was  instituted  in  post-biblical  times ! 
On  the  other  hand,  we  are  glad  to  record  that  females 
inherited  equally  with  males,  where  Karaite  civil  law 
held  sway. 

The  fatal  mistake  of  Anan  is  that  he  did  a  right  thing 
in  a  wrong  way.  He  found  that  the  simplicity  and  grand- 
eur of  the  Scripture  had  been  marred  and  that  the  tend- 
ency of  the  Talmudic  system  was  towards  dry  legalism 
and  trifling  minutiae.  In  founding  a  new  school  to  cor- 
rect abuses  that  always  cluster  around  institutions  in 
process  of  time,  his  duty  was  to  revise  rabbinic  law,  not 
to  abandon  it  altogether.  In  lacking  this  power  of  dis- 
crimination, he  missed  his  opportunity.  Ruthlessly  to 
cast  aside  with  the  undesirable  so  many  rites,  endeared 
by  long  sanction,  and  many  others  wise  and  worthy  in 
themselves,  was  to  invite  opposition  and  to  court  unpopu- 
larity. The  movement  may  then  be  said  to  have  suffered 
from  the  limitations  of  the  man.  When  we  have  said 
that  he  was  not  a  religious  genius,  we  have  almost  said 
everything.     But  that  the  movement  survived  the  man 


34  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

(though  it  ceased  to  bear  his  name)  may  be  regarded  as 
some  testimony  of  greatness. 

The  Improvements 
of  Karaism. 

The  Karaites  took  an  enlightened  attitude  towards 
other  rehgions.  They  acknowledged  the  greatness  of 
both  Jesus  and  Mahomet  and  recognized  that  Islam  and 
Christianity  both  had  messages  for  the  world. 

The  early  Karaites  practised  rigid  self-denial ;  asceti- 
cism is  a  not  unusual  characteristic  of  new  sects  in  the 
first  stage  of  enthusiasm.  This  moderated  with  time. 
So  did  their  extreme  radicalism,  with  which  they  began. 

For  a  long  time  great  bitterness  prevailed  between 
the  Karaites  and  the  Rabbanites,  the  latter  comprising 
the  bulk  of  Israel.  Anan  became  a  rival  Resh  Gelutha. 
On  the  one  side,  Karaites  were  excommunicated,  and 
they  in  their  turn  would  not  eat  or  intermarry  with  the 
conservatives. 

The  great  and  lasting  service  rendered  to  the  cause 
of  Judaism  by  the  Karaites,  for  which  we  are  even  still 
grateful,  was  the  new  impetus  given  to  Bible  study.  For, 
as  all  law  had  to  be  deduced  from  the  Scriptures  anew, 
it  involved  a  thorough  scrutiny  of  its  text,  This  meant, 
too,  a  more  scientific  knowledge  of  Hebrew  grammar 
than  had  hitherto  prevailed.  This  gave  birth  to  a  new 
literature  on  the  Bible.  Scripture  commentaries  were 
written  not  only  by  the  Karaites  but,  in  emulation,  by  the 
Rabbanites  also.  For,  to  maintain  the  validity  of  their 
Talmudic  laws,  which  the  Karaites  criticised,  it  became 
necessary  also  to  trace  their  roots  to  the  Law  of  Moses. 
But,  for  many  years,  the  preponderance  of  scholarship 
was  on  the  Karaite  side. 

It  was  just  the  period,  too,  when  Arabic  learning  was 
ripening  to  its  best.     So  Jewish  scholarship  now  received 


THE     KARAITES  35 

ci  double  incentive,   from  Hebrew  learning  within   and 
from  Arabic  culture  without. 

With  its  centre  at  Jerusalem,  Karaism  steadily  spread, 
reaching  Babylonia,  Egypt,  the  Crimea  and,  later,  Spain. 
Its  zealous  disciples  made  earnest  propaganda  in  its 
cause. 

Notes  and  References. 
Karaism. 

Some  Karaites  went  so  far  as  to  allow  to  each  the 
right  of  individual  interpretation.  This  occas'onally  led 
to  confusion,  to  the  forming  of  sects  within  the  sect — 
each  with  its  separate  regulations.  Something  of  the 
same  character  occurred  and  with  the  same  consequences 
when  the  Protestant  Reformation  took  place  in  the 
Church  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

For  some  famous  Karaite  scholars  and  the  propaganda 
they  made  for  the  cause,  see  Jcivish  Literature,  Abra- 
hams, pp.  76-82. 

Sunnites  and  Shiites  among  Mohammedans  correspond 
respectively  to  Rabbanites  and  Karaites  among  the  Jews. 

The  Calendar. 

Hillel  II.  is  said  to  have  been  the  man  who  equalized 
the  lunar  and  solar  year  by  the  addition  of  a  month  (2nd 
Adar)  seven  times  in  each  nineteen  years. 

Karaites  and  the  Messiah. 

On  one  or  two  occasions  anti-Talmudic  movements 
were  heralded  by  self-styled  Messiahs — deluded  enthu- 
siasts who  thought  that  the  time  had  arrived  to  lead  their 
people  back  to  the  Holy  Land — and  that  they  were  the 
chosen  instruments  of  the  divine  will.  One  such  ap- 
peared in  Syria  about  720,  and  another  in  Ispahan  about 
760. 

But  Messiah  uprisings  due  to  local  persecution  were 
only  accidental  associations  of  anti-Talmudic  move- 
ments— not  their  legitimate  outcome.  On  the  contrary, 
the  opponents  of  rabbinic  rule  were  mostly  the  ration- 


36  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

alists  among  the  Jews,  the  last  to  be  carried  away  by 
mystic  dreams. 

Sahal. 

One  of  these  Karaites  of  the  tenth  century  was  the 
zealous  Sahal  of  Jerusalem.  He  compiled  a  Bible  com- 
mentary, a  Hebrew  grammar  and  a  manual  of  religious 
observance.  He  tried  hard  to  win  the  Rabbanites  over  to 
the  Karaite  fold.  Very  severe  was  he  in  denunciation 
of  prevailing  superstitions,  such  as  invoking  departed 
spirits  and  making  vows  to  cure  disease.  This  gives  us 
an  insight  into  the  credulity  of  those  days. 

Rivalry  of  the  Two  Schools. 

A  curious  polemic  comes  down  to  us  from  the  year 
1346  of  the  distinctions  between  Karaism  and  Rabbin- 
ism  as  enumerated  by  the  former : 

"F'irst :  They  maintain  that  there  were  several  enact- 
ments really  communicated  to  Moses.  IVe  do  not  believe 
that  there  was  any  commandment  orally  communicated, 
which  is  not  written  in  the  Book  of  the  Law. 

"Second:  TJiey  maintain  that  whatever  is  written  in 
the  Law  requires  an  interpretation  according  to  the  said 
tradition.  We,  the  true  sages,  have  turned  from  this 
slippery  path  of  tradition  and  closely  kept  to  the  safe 
road  of  Scripture. 

"Third :  They  maintain  that  the  Law  itself  permits 
them  to  add  to  the  precepts  and  enactments  of  the  writ- 
ten Law ;  but  zve,  who  fear  the  Lord  and  tremble  at  His 
word,  we  men  of  justice,  have  seen  that  nothing  is  a 
greater  stumbling-block  to  Israel  than  the  invention  of  the 
second  law." 

From  The  Hebrew  Review,  Zedner,  London,  i860. 

Theme  for  Discussion : 

The  likeness  and  difference  between  Sadducees  and 
Karaites, 


37 


CHAPTER      IV. 

SAADYAH  GAON  AND  THE  TWO  ACADEMIES. 

When  Haroun  Al  Raschid  died  in  809  the  Mohamme- 
dans, hitherto  so  tolerant  to  the  Jews,  were  stirred  by  a 
wave  of  fanaticism  against  them.  (Israel  was  to  find 
in  its  checkered  career  that  that  the  liberal  has  intolerant 
lapses  sometimes,  and,  thank  God,  the  bigot  has  occa- 
sionally benignant  inspirations.)  So  we  must  not  be 
surprised  to  see  the  Resh  Gelutha,  the  head  of  Jewish 
afTairs  in  the  East,  shorn  of  his  power  and  the  Jews  made 
to  wear  badges  in  invidious  distinction  from  the  Moslem. 

Jewish 
Scholarship. 

But  it  was  only  a  passing  storm.  Tolerant  sunshine 
was  the  normal  atmosphere  under  Moslem  sway,  and  it 
brought  its  usual  accompaniment  of  culture.  Emulating 
the  Mohammedan  scholars  who  were  translating  Greek 
classics  into  Arabic,  the  Jewish  scholars  began  to  win 
laurels  in  the  fields  of  medicine,  astronomy  and  mathe- 
matics. Just  as  it  was  the  Karaites,  who  were  most 
active  in  natural  science,  so  it  was  the  Moslem  rational- 
ists— whom  the  orthodox  called  Mutazalists  (heretics)  — 
who  were  the  more  scholarly. 

These  Jewish  and  Moslem  rationalists  tried  to  make 
clear  the  spiritual  nature  of  Gdd.  Emphasis  on  divine 
spirituality  was  certainly  needed  among  the  less  intelli- 
gent both  of  Mohammedans  and  Jews,  all  too  prone  to 
depict  God  in  a  material  way.  Sometimes  even  in  the 
great  academies  of  Sora  and  Pumbeditha,  both  of  which 
had  flourished  since  the  third  century,  teachers  were  not 
wanting  who  represented  divinity  somewhat  crudely.  God 


38  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

was  sometimes  spoken  of  in  a  rather  naive  way  in  many 
a  Midrashic  story.  The  mistake  only  lay  in  those  who 
could  not  discern  the  playful  touch  and  interpreted  the 
picture  too  literally, 

The 
Geonim. 

About  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century,  the  school  of 
Sora,  which  had  so  far  held  preeminence,  declined  in 
prestige.  Pumbeditha  now  loomed  prominent,  possibly  in 
consequence  of  its  nearness  to  Bagdad.  Its  head  was 
also  given  the  title  of  Gaon  (Excellency),  and  it  became 
independent  of  the  Exilarch.  Both  schools  now  shared 
equally  the  revenues  sent  for  their  maintenance  by  Israel 
at  large. 

The  Geonim  were  now  the  spirited  leaders  of  the 
Jews.  What  were  their  chief  duties?  First  and  chiefly 
the  exposition  of  Talmudic  law,  solving  the  religious 
questions  of  the  people.  Secondly,  they  played  a  large 
part  in  regulating  the  secular  affairs  of  the  community 
touching  trade,  agriculture,  landed  property,  lawsuits  and 
application  of  Bible  laws  to  the  usages  of  their  neigh- 
bors. For  the  Jews  were  left  largely  to  manage  their 
own  affairs,  that  is,  they  were  granted  a  kind  of  local 
self-government.  Again,  they  were  litterateurs,  writing 
treatises  on  Talmudic  themes.  One  compiled  a  Talmud 
dictionary,  another  a  Jewish  book  of  worship,  yet  an- 
other wrote  a  treatise  on  the  Calendar. 

About  the  year  750  a  Compendium  of  Jewish  Law  was 
pvi  forth  by  Judah,  the  blind  Gaon  of  Sora,  and  another 
wa^  written  about  900  in  emulation  of  the  activity  of  the 
Karaites  and  in  contradistinction  to  their  codes  of  law. 
The  times  also  produced  a  history  in  Arabic  of  the  Sec- 
ond  Temple  epoch.     Spurred  on  by  Karaite  rivalry,  the 


SAADVAII     GAON     AND    THE    TWO     ACADEMIES  39 

schools  now  devoted  themselves  to  the  study  of  biblical 
exegesis,  Hebrew  grammar  and  even  natural  science,  to 
which  they  had  been'  somewhat  averse. 

This  ])criod  of  intellectual  awakening  now  produced  a 
great  scholar — the  herald  of  a  series  of  Jewish  philoso- 
phers that  were  to  bring  light  into  the  Dark  Ages — 
Saadyah. 

Judaism  had  produced  no  great  philosopher  since 
Philo.  {T.  Y.  chap,  xvii.)  Its  thinkers  had  devoted 
their  energy  not  to  theology  but  to  law.  Of  Talmudic 
thinkers  who  have  transmitted  to  us  fine  bits  of  wis- 
dom— Rabbi  Joshua,  Resh  Lakish,  Mar  Samuel  and 
others — we  are  hardly  told  enough  to  classify  them  as 
philosophers.  But  beginning  with  Saadyah,  the  Jews 
were  now  to  produce  in  the  coming  centuries — not  one 
system  of  philosophy  that  we  can  specifically  -term  "the 
Jewish" — but  a  series  of  individual  philosophers,  ex- 
pounders of  every  school  in  the  light  of  Jewish  belief, 
and  contributing  valuable  and  corrective  data  to  every 
phase  of  speculative  thought. 

Saadyah  Gaon. 

Saadyah  was  born  in  Upper  Egypt,  in  the  year  892. 
Although  he  received  a  broad  and  scientific  education,  he 
nevertheless  became  a  vigorous  opponent  of  the  Kara- 
ites. Because  of  his  fine  scholarship  he  was  able  to  meet 
them  on  their  own  ground,  and  they  found  in  him  an 
opponent  worthy  of  their  steel.  Following  their  exam- 
ple he  also  produced  a  Hebrew  dictionary  and  a  Hebrew 
grammar,  and  devoted  himself  early  to  biblical  exposi- 
tion. He  translated  nearly  the  whole  Bible  into  Arabic 
and  added  popular  notes.  Like  the  Septuagint  to  the 
Greeks,  it  served  to  acquaint  the  Arabian  with  the  Bible. 
Then,  too,  Arabic  had  become  the  vernacular  for  Jews  in 


40  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

Moslem  lands.  This  meant  their  introduction  to  Arabic 
literature.  The  next  step  was  to  be  the  fusing  of  Arabic 
and  Jewish  culture.  The  same  sequence  had  occurred 
about  a  thousand  years  earlier  among  Greek  speaking 
Jews  of  Alexandria. 

Saadyah  was  entirely  with  the  Karaites  in  discour- 
aging prevailing  crude  notions  of  divinity.  But  he 
vigorously  condemned  their  rejection  of  Talmudic 
law.  His  controversies  with  this  new  school,  which 
form  a  large  part  of  his  writings,  helped  to  clarify 
his  opinions  and  at  the  same  time  to  bring  him  to 
the  notice  of  the  Jewish  world  at  large.  His  fame 
spread  from  Egypt  to  Babylonia.  So,  although  not  edu- 
cated in  its  schools,  and  although  some  resented  his  study 
of  science  and  philosophy,  it  was  decided  against  all  pre- 
cedents, to  call  him  to  the  Gaonate  of  Sora.  It  was  hoped 
that  this  great  scholar  might  revive  its  waning  fame.  So 
in  928  he  became  Saadyah- Gaow. 

His  learning,  his  breadth  of  view  and  his  winning  per- 
sonality attracted  many  students  to  his  lecture  room.  He 
^t  once  set  to  work  to  reform  abuses  that  had  crept  into 
the  life  of  the  Babylonian  Jews  in  general  and  in  the  high 
office  of  Exilarch  (Resh  Gelutha)  in  particular.  This 
won  him  many  enemies  already  jealous  of  the  foreigner 
given  chief  place  in  one  of  their  Academies. 

Refusing  to  sanction  an  unjust  decision  in  favor  of  a 
corrupt  Exilarch  named  David  and  into  which  dispute 
even  the  reigning  Caliph  was  drawn,  his  integrity  lost  him 
his  Gaonate.  He  believed  that  it  was  better  to  be  right 
than  Gaon. 

But  the  gloomy  outlook  that  such  conditions  indicated 
made  him  despondent  and  somewhat  affected  his  health. 

Nevertheless,  he  made  his  retirement  his  period  of 
greatest  literary  activity.     Prayers,   poems,   articles  on 


SAADYAH     GAON    AND    THE    TWO    ACADEMIES  4I 

Talmudic  law,  Responsa  (answers  to  religious  queries) 
and  a  treatise  on  the  Commandments  now  came  from 
his  prolific  pen. 

Faith  and 
Creed. 

But  his  great  work  was  a  philosophy  of  Religion — 
written  in  Arabic,  but  best  known  through  its  translated 
Hebrew  title  EmnnotJi  v'Daioth  (Faith  and  Creed). 

In  this  work  in  which  he  was  unconsciously  influenced 
by  Moslem  thinkers  of  his  day,  he  endeavored  to  answer 
the  needs  of  two  classes — the  ignorant,  who  shrunk  from 
philosophic  learning  and  whose  faith  was  blind,  and  the 
extreme  rationalists  whose  faith  was  doubtful.  He  de- 
sired to  harmonize  Philosophy  and  Faith,  a  meritorious 
aim  that  many  great  thinkers  since  his  day  have  tried  to 
realize. 

He  treats  here  of  all  themes  of  religious  concern — God, 
Creation,  Revelation,  the  Soul,  Human  Obligation,  Death, 
Resurrection,  Retribution  and  the  Messiah. 

Here  and  there  he  criticises  the  diverging  points  of 
view  of  Church  and  Mosque  on  these  doctrines.  Fie 
criticises  the  Christian  theory  of  the  Messiah  and  the 
Moslem  authority  of  "The  Prophet."  He  upholds  the 
unity  of  God  taught  by  Judaism  as  against  Persian  Dual- 
ism and  Christian  Trinity.  He  refutes  Paul's  justifica- 
tion for  abandoning  the  Jewish  Law  (T.  Y.,  p.  133)  and 
shows  that  its  commands  are  imposed  that  we  may  attain 
the  highest  blessing.  He  tries  to  recon:ile  man's  free  will 
with  God's  omniscience  and  the  suffering  of  the  righteous 
with  His  justice.  How  many  before  and  since  have 
sought  to  answer  these  profound  problems  of  life! 

His  opinions  are  strictly  conservative  though  ration- 
ally presented.    He  defends  the  traditional  belief  of  "ere- 


42  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

ation  out  of  nothing"  (creatio  ex  nihilo),  which  we  will 
hear  of  again,  and  the  resurrection  of  the  hody.  He  does 
not  cjuestion  divine  revelation  according  to  the  literal 
word  of  the  Bible.  He  accepts  Bible  miracles,  in  fact  he 
regards  them  as  proof  of  its  authority.  Yet  in  his  day 
very  few  rationalists  doubted  the  authenticity  of  the 
Scriptures,  though  not  always  accepting  the  authority 
of  the  Talmud. 

Altogether,  we  may  say  he  revived  Rabbinism  and 
checked  the  spread  of  Karaism  ;  whether  it  was  for  evil 
or  for  good  it  is  hard  to  say.  Thus  we  see  that  neither 
in  the  Synagogue  nor  in  the  Church  of  a  few  centuries 
earlier,  had  a  rationalistic  movement  succeeded  in  displac- 
ing the  prevailing  orthodoxy. 

Saadyah  was  finally  restored  to  the  Gaonate  in  937 ;  so 
justice  triumphed  in  the  end.  He  generously  befriended 
the  son  and  grandson  of  his  old  enemy  the  Exilarch 
David,  with  whom  he  had  become  reconciled.  But  he  did 
not  live  long  to  enjoy  his  new  honors.  At  the  age  of  fifty 
he  closed  his  brilliant  career.  The  school  of  Sora  that 
had  shown  new  signs  of  life  during  his  energetic  rule 
closed  its  doors  in  948,  six  years  after  his  death. 

Closing  of  the 
Eastern  Academies. 

The  Exilarchate  that  had  also  been  steadily  declining 
was  allowed  to  lapse  altogether  during  a  passing  wave 
of  intolerance  in  the  year  940,  after  existing  seven  hun- 
dred years. 

Pumbeditha  had  a  sligthly  longer  lease  of  life  through 
the  energy  of  two  famous  Gaonim,  Sherira  and  his  son 
Hai.  .  To  Sherira  we  owe  a  history  of  the  Jewish  com- 
munitv  in  letter  form  from  the  close  of  the  Talmud  to 


SAADYAH     GAON     AND    THE    TWO    ACADEMIES  43 

his  own  day — i.  e.,  from  about  500  a.  c.  e.  almost  to  the 
ear  1000. 
Hai  Gaon  was  far  the  greater  man,  both  in  character 
and  thought.     He  was  not  ashamed  to  learn  from  both 
Christian  and  Mohammedan.     In  certain  Talmudic  fields 
he  remained  the  authority  for  later  generations.     He  was 
clear  minded  enough  to  condemn  the  superstitious  magic 
supposed  to  be  evoked  by  utterance  of  the  tetragram- 
',-hiaton  (four  lettered  name  of  God,    mH*  ). 
rs^  I  Scholars  in  different  lands  gladly  sought  his  counsel. 
\  With  his  death  .in  1038  we  may  say  the  school  of  Pum- 
beditha  also  came  to  an  end  and  with  it  an  epoch  in 
Judaism. 

As  the  center  of  Judaism  had  shifted  from  Palestine  to 
Babylonia  with  the  decline  of  the  Patriarchate,  so  now 
with  the  extinction  of  the  Exilarchate,  a  new  center  of 
Jewish  activity  emerges.  This  time,  no  longer  in  Asia, 
but  in  Europe,  for  the  Jew  was  gradually  changing  his 
continental  home. 


Notes  and  References. 
Respoiisa. 

Responsnm  (an  answer),  Hebrew  She'elot  u-Tcshubot, 
i.e.  Questions  and  Answers.  These  consist  of  decisions 
on  Jewish  law  issued  from  time  to  time  by  eminent  rabbis 
and  teachers  of  authority  in  answer  to  written  questions 
from  communities  or  individuals.  Some  of  the  questions 
were  on  theoretical  knowledge  in  relation  to  Jewish  be- 
lief, but  most  concerned  practical  life,  touching  conditions 
that  arose  in  Israel's  varied  experiences  for  which  an- 
swers could  not  always  be  found  in  Bible,  Talmud  or 
lewish  codes  of  law.  'Many  of  them  throw  light  on  the 
times  in  which  they  were  written  and,  therefore,  supply 
valuable  information  on  the  history  of  the  Jews  and  on 
their   moral   and   social    relations.      These    Answers,    of 


44  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

which  there  are  several  hundred  thousand,  cover  a  period 
of  1 700  years. 

Kalam. 

The  Moslem  rationalists — whom  the  orthodox  called 
Mutazalists  (heretics)  were 'noted  for  scholarship.  They 
developed  a  religious  philosophy  styled  Kalam.  They 
paraphrased  their  Koran  much  as  the  Alexandrian  Jews 
had  allegorized  the  Jewish  Scripture.  They  may  have 
indirectly  given  impetus  to  the  Karaite  movement. 

•  Thought  repeats  itself  as  well  as  history.  In  the  Alex- 
andrian school,  Philo  {T.  Y.,  p.  143)  touched  by  Greek 
influence,  depicted  God  as  the  absolutely  perfect,  devoid 
of  all  limiting  qualities  and  having  no  contact  with  mat- 
ter. The  Moslem  rationalists  now  depicted  God  in  the 
same  abstract  way.  Just  as  Philo  and  his  school  endeav- 
ored to  read  Greek  philosophy  into  Jewish  Scripture  by 
explaining  its  laws  and  language  allegorically,  so  the 
Mutazalists  interpreted  the  Koran,  and  like  them,  too, 
treated  every  anthropomorphism  as  a  metaphor.  Like 
them  the  Karaite  philosophers  likewise  depicted  God  in  a 
more  exalted  and  rarified  way — spiritually  aloof,  so  to 
speak — unaware  that  they  were  following  the  precedent 
of  their  own  ancestors  rather  than  their  Moslem  contem- 
poraries. 

Gcnisah. 

This  Hebrew  word  means  hiding  place.  It  is  a  syna- 
gogue store  room  in  which  worn  out  Hebrew  books  and 
papers  were  preserved.  In  this  way  many  lost  manu- 
scripts have  come  to  light,  rewarding  the  patient  search 
of  the  scholars.  Saadyaiia  is  the  name  given  to  such 
a  collection  edited  by  Solomon  Schechter  (Cambridge, 
1913).  It  contains  fragments  of  writings  of  R.  Saadyah 
Gaon  and  others.  Some  of  the  contents  are  fragments 
of  lost  books. 

Saadyah. 

Seeing  that  the  "Sepher  Yetzirah,"  a  mystical  work 


SAADYAH    GAON   AND  THE  TWO  ACADEMIES  45 

on  the  Creation,  tended  to  encourage  the  superstitions  of 
its  less  thoughtful  readers,  he  rationalized  the  work  for 
popular  usage. 

There  is  a  very  informing  article  on  "The  Life  and 
Works  of  Saadyah,"  by  Dr.  AI.  Friedlander,  in  the  5th 
volume  of  the  Jcivish  Quarterly  Rcz'iciv. 

For  those  who  would  penetrate  further  into  the  nice- 
ties of  biblical  exposition,  the  reader  is  referred  to  vols. 
X  and  xiii,  of  Jewish  Quarterly  Rcviezv  for  articles  on 
"Anti-Karaite  Writings  of  Saadyah  Gaon." 

Theme  for  Discussion : 

Was  it  altogether  in  the  interest  of  the  Jewish  cause 
that  the  spread  of  Karaism  was  checked  through  the 
vigor  of  Saadyah? 


46  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

CHAPTER     V. 
CHAZARS— THE  PROSELYTE  KINGDOM 

In  what  is  now  Russia  and  the  adjacent  principaHties, 
Jews  had  been  settled  since  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
Era;  but  the  wave  of  persecution  in  the  Byzantine  Em- 
pire in  the  eighth  century  brought  a  larger  influx  of  Jews 
into  this  territory.  Here  were  settled  half -civilized 
groups  of  many  allied  races,  among  them  Scythians, 
Finns,  Bulgarians  and — Chacars. 

The  Chazars,  a  people  of  Turkish  origin,  had  estab- 
lished themselves  by  the  seventh  century  between  the 
Black  and  Caspian  Seas,  on  the  borders  of  two  continents. 
The  steady  advance  of  their  conquering  arms  brought 
terror  to  the  Persians  in  Asia  and  won  an  alliance  with 
the  Byzantine  Empire  in  Europe. 

The  Jews  settled  among  them  displayed  superior  in- 
dustry and  intelligence.  These  qualities  began  to  tell,  and 
the  Chazars  came  to  look  up  to  them  with  something  of 
the  same  respect  with  which  the  Arabians  had  regarded 
the  Jews,  settled  among  them  in  the  pre-Mohammedan 
days  (T.  Y .,  p.  295). 

How  the  Chazars 
Became  Jews. 

The  religion  of  the  Chazars  had  so  far  been  like  that 
of  their  neighbors — a  strange  mixture  of  idolatrous  no- 
tions and  superstitions.  But  they  now  came  to  learn  of 
Judaism  from  these  Jewish  settlers  and  visiting  mer- 
chants, and  of  Mohammedanism  and  Christianity  from 
Arabians  and  Greeks.  Of  these  three  religions,  it  was 
the  Mosaic  Faith  that  awakened  in  them  a  responsive 
chord.  They  seemed  to  find  in  this  creed  that  which  best 
appealed  to  their  convictions  and  awakened  the  noblest 


CriAZARS TIIK     PKOSKLYTE      KINGDOM  4/ 

in  them.  So  the  Cliiizars  cmhraced  Judaism!  This  hap- 
pened about  the  year  800. 

A  romantic  story  runs,  that  invited  representatives  of 
Judaism,  Christianity  and  Mohammedanism  presented 
their  respective  claims  in  a  pubHc  rehgious  disputation. 
The  presiding  king,  Bulan,  noticed,  however,  that  both 
the  Cross  and  the  Crescent  placed  Judaism  as  the  founda- 
tion of  their  respective  creeds — and  always  referred  to  it 
as  their  standard  and  starting  point.  This  unconscious 
and  unintended  tribute  to  the  authority  of  the  Mosaic 
faith  helped  to  decide  the  royal  choice.  In  a  later  chapter 
(x)  we  shall  show  how  one  of  our  philosophers  used  this 
incident  to  present  a  comparison  between  Judaism  and 
other  creeds.  His  work  popularized  the  story.  Bulan's 
example  was  followed  by  the  nobles  and  eventually  to  a 
very  great  extent  by  the  people  at  large.  The  law 
decided  that  henceforth  the  monarch  must  be  a  Jew, 
though  religious  liberty  was  granted  to  all. 

The  next  king,  Obadiah,  enthusiastic  in  the  cause  of 
Judaism,  invited  Jewish  sages  to  his  kingdom  to  establish 
synagogues  and  schools.  In  this  way  the  people  were 
instructed  in  the  Bible,  Talmud  and  in  Jewish  observ- 
ances. 

Influence 
of  Judaism. 

The  new  religion  brought  as  great  a  moral  change  in 
character  as  Philo  tells  us  took  place  among  the  Greek 
and  Roman  proselytes  to  Judaism  of  his  day.  The  bar- 
baric practice  of  selling  children  as  slaves  was  at  once 
abandoned.  Though  still  a  nomadic  people,  living  in 
barbaric  surroundings,  they  established  a  civilized  gov- 
ernment with  courts  of  justice,  and  maintained  extensive 
trade.  In  a  fanatic  era  their  sway  was  tolerant  and  broad 
and  the  land  became  even  a  haven  for  tlie  persecuted. 


48  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

When  at  the  height  of  his  power,  the  king,  or  chaghan 
as  he  was  called,  even  took  means  to  defend  Jews  perse- 
cuted in  other  lands. 

For  many  years  the  community  remained  unknown  to 
the  rest  of  the  House  of  Israel.  But  about  the  year  960 
the  news  of  the  proselyte  kingdom  was  brought  to  Chas- 
dai  Ibn  Nagdela  in  Spain,  of  whom  we  shall  hear  later. 
He  at  once  entered  in  correspondence  with  Joseph,  its 
eleventh  Jewish  king.  He  made  thorough  enquiry  as  to 
its  geographical  location,  its  past  history,  its  customs,  its 
internal  constitution  and  the  occupations  of  its  people. 
It  is  to  the  correspondence  that  followed  that  we  are  in- 
debted for  most  of  what  we  know  of  the  Jewish  Chazar 
community. 

Decline  of  the 
Chazars. 

In  the  tenth  century  its  fortunes  began  to  decline.  Its 
outlying  provinces  were  seized  by  the  rising  power  of 
Russia.  But  the  Byzantines  still  regarded  them  with  re- 
spect and  fear.  The  Russian  incursions  continued  to 
absorb  more  of  their  territory  and  soon  they  held  naught 
but  the  Crimea.  This  was  at  length  absorbed,  too,  by  the 
steadily  advancing  Russians  in  1016.  Some  commingled 
with  other  Jews  settled  there  and  the  royalty  took  refuge 
in  Spain. 

Like  the  Jewish  proselyte  kingdom  established  by 
Jussuf  in  Arabia  in  the  sixth  century,  it  was  not  destined 
to  endure  (T.  Y.,  p.  296).  Before  the  year  iioo  the  Jew- 
ish kingdom  of  the  Chazars  had  vanished  as  a  dream. 
But  who  shall  say  how  far  the  Jewish  influence  may  have 
been  carried  among  the  scattered  people? 

Theme  for  Diseiission: 

Why  have  proselyte  Jewish  kingdoms  not  been  suc- 
cessful? 


49 


CHAPTER     VI. 

A  "LIGHT"  IN   LANDS  OF   EXILE. 

The  Feudal  System 
and  the  Jews. 

European  society  was  arranged  on  the  plan  of  the 
feudal  system  (feud,  fief— an  estate).  That  is,  the  lands 
were  parcelled  out  among  the  lords,  who  held  them  in 
tenure  to  the  king.  The  peasantry  in  turn  were  vassals  of 
the  lords,  lived  on  their  land  and  paid  them  in  kind  from 
the  produce.  In  time  of  war  the  king  summoned  his 
lords,  and  the  lords  their  vassals.  Many  of  these  humble 
tenants  were  serfs,  bound  to  the  soil  on  which  they  toiled. 

What  place  had  the  Jews  in  this  regime?  Strictly 
speaking,  none.  They  were  almost  regarded  as  intruders, 
granted  sufferance  for  the  convenience  of  trade.  The 
king  usually  took  them  under  his  protection,  and,  indif- 
ferent though  it  was,  he  taxed  them  for  it  roundly. 

Not  granted  the  privilege  of  carrying  arms — for  war- 
fare was  the  daily  occupation  of  a  "gentleman" — they 
directed  their  attention  to  commerce  and  industry.  In 
this  way  they  served  a  useful  function  and  became  a 
monied  class.  We  shall  see  how  this  general  status  could 
change  from  an  undisturbed  security — in  which  quiet  joys 
may  not  have  been  lacking — to  a  state  of  tension  and  peril 
in  which  a  doubtful  safety  was  only  reached  by  hurried 
flight. 

End  of  Frankish 
Empire. 

In  our  opening  chapter  we  saw  the  renowned  Charle- 
magne bringing  most  of  the  European  races  under  his 


50  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

sway.  But  the  mantle  of  his  greatness  did  not  fall  upon 
the  shoulders  of  his  successor,  his  son,  Louis.  Like  the 
Greek  Alexander,  Charlemagne  had  the  genius  to  found 
a  vast  empire,  but  not  the  power  to  assure  it  to  posterity. 
Louis  was  fairly  styled  "The  Gentle"  (pious)  ;  but 
sterner  qualities  were  needed  to  hold  all  the  Carlovingian 
Empire  in  control.  Torn  between  rebellious  sons  on  the 
one  hand  and  a  scheming  clergy  on  the  other,  his  domin- 
ions at  his  death  broke  up  and  split  into  three  kingdoms. 
A  treaty  was  enacted  at  Verdun  in  843  and  its  outcome 
was  an  eastern  and  western  Frankish  Empire  ;  these  were 
really  the  beginnings  of  the  French  and  German  nations. 

But  with  almost  each  new  monarch,  in  those  days  of 
conflict,  national  boundaries  changed.  Sometimes  Italy 
was  held  and  sometimes  lost ;  but  in  the  year  888,  on  the 
death  of  Charles  the  Fat,  the  Carlovingian  Empire  (as 
the  Frankish  was  called,  after  Charle-magne),  came  to  an 
end. 

Then  there  was  a  second  influx  of  barbarians.  Those 
of  the  fifth  century  had  consisted  of  Huns,  Goths  and 
Vandals  and  had  broken  up  the  Western  Roman  Em- 
pire. This  second  invasion  consisted  of  Danes  and  Norse 
from  the  north,  Saracens  from  the  south,  and  Hungarians 
from  the  east.  They  undid  much  of  Charlemagne's  good 
work  of  establishing  law  and  order.  Many  of  the  races 
he  had  subjected — such  as  Wends  and  Czechs — broke 
away  and  a  period  of  misrule  followed. 

So  the  social  statvis  in  this  time  of  turmoil  was  low 
indeed.  The  strong  grew  rich  and  menacingly  powerful ; 
the  poor  became  enslaved.  In  Italy  all  sorts  of  adven- 
turers seized  and  disgraced  the  office  of  Pope,  and  vio- 
lence and  immorality  were  rife. 

Not  till  the  middle  of  the  next  century  did  Otto  the 
Great,  a  man  of  something  of  the  vigor  of  Charlemagne, 


A  "light"   in   lands  of  exile  51 

recover  Italy  and  bring  the  people  within  his  dominions 
into  something  like  order  again. 

Like  his  illustrious  predecessor,  he,  too,  assumed  the 
imperial  title  and  again  we  hear  of  the  "Holy  Roman 
Empire."  This  meant  Germany  and  Italy.  The  people 
continued  to  delude  themselves  into  the  belief  that  the 
Roman  Empire  continued  to  exist  by  setting  up  this 
empty  title.  From  the  capital  Aix-la-Chapelle  to  the 
capital  Rome  was  a  long  journey  for  German  kings  to 
take,  for  this  phantom  honor.  Better  w^ould  it  have  been 
for  Germany  had  its  kings  stayed  at  home  to  strengthen 
their  legitimate  domain  than  to  dissipate  their  energies 
in  pursuing  sham  glories.  But  "Roman  Empire"  was  a 
term  to  conjure  with.  This  notion  of  one  sole  sover- 
eignty helped  to  sustain  the  idea  of  one  sole  Church,  as 
already  explained.  A  world-empire,  material  and  reli- 
gious, became  a  kind  of  doctrine.  It  made  the  pope,  too, 
as  head  of  the  Church,  a  species  of  spiritual  emperor — 
which  carried  with  it  immense  powder  and  vast  sway. 
But,  in  the  hands  of  unscrupulous  men,  it  often  brought 
demoralization  and  disaster. 

Jews  Under 
Charlemagne's  Successors. 

In  this  setting  how  fared  Israel  under  Charlemagne's 
successors  ?  Louis,  his  eldest  son,  whose  sway  was  chiefly 
exercised  in  the  French  portion  of  his  empire,  certainly 
earned  his  title  of  gentle,  in  his  treatment  of  Israel.  His 
reign  with  that  of  his  father  form  one  of  the  bright  spots 
in  mediaeval  Jewish  annals.  He  gave  the  Jews  freedom 
of  movement  and  of  worship,  protection  against  bigoted 
clergy,  ai)pointing  a  special  M agister  Jiidacoritm  (head  of 
the  Jews)  for  the  consideration  of  their  secular  and  reli- 


52  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

gious  needs.     As  examples  of  his  beneficence  he  gave 
them    jurisdiction    over    their    own    offenders,    and    he 
changed  the  market  day  from  Saturday  to  Sunday.     His 
kindly  treatment  was  more  than  seconded  by  his  queen, 
Judith,  who  did  not  merely  tolerate  Judaism  but  favored 
it.     Naturally  the  example  of  the  court  was  followed  by 
the  courtiers,  who  even  began  to  show  partiality  for  Jew- 
ish   worship    and    preaching,    while    abbots    sat    at    the 
feet   of   Jewish    scholars.      One   bishop,    Bodo,    repelled 
by  the  immoralities  of  the  clergy,  became  a  proselyte  to 
Judaism.     With  the  zeal  of  a  convert,  he  left  "country, 
kindred  and  father's  home"  for  the  sake  of  his  new  faith. 
This  remarkable  friendliness,  in  contrast  with  the  more 
usual  antagonism,  brings  out  two  opposing  attitudes  of 
Christians  towards  the  Jews.     By  some  they  were  re- 
garded as  the  chosen  people  of  God  and  as  such  to  be 
venerated  ;  by  others,  they  were  looked  upon  as  outcasts 
of  God  and  as  such  to  be  condemned.     King  Louis'  brief 
day  represented  the  former.     Too  soon  and  all  too  long 
were  the  Jews  to  experience  the  latter.     Alas,  it  grew 
to  be  the  normal   status.     Already  in  Louis'   reign  the 
higher  clergy — always  less  tolerant  than  the  lower — be- 
gan to  look  with  alarm  at  this  drift  towards  Judaism. 
Agobard,   bishop   of   Lyons,   attacked   them   persistently 
and  relentlessly  and  even  joined  the  rebellion  of  Louis' 
sons  because  of  their  father's  "criminal"  kindness  to  the 
Jews.     He  tried  to  revive  all  those  cruel  Church  laws 
which  had  made  life  so  bitter  in  early  Spain  (T.  Y .,  p. 
290-1).     Owing  to  the  opposition  of  the  king,  he  failed. 
With  a  persistence  worthy  of  a  better  cause  he  wrote 
bitter  letters  to  his  bishops  urging  them  to  endorse  his 
bigotry.     But  Louis  turned  a  deaf  ear  to  their  united 
appeal. 
But  Amolo,  who  succeeded  Agobard,  not  only  in  the 


A       LIGHT       IN    LANDS    OF    EXILE  53 

bishopric  of  Lyons,  but  also  in  antagonism  to  the  Jews, 
continued  the  vendetta  of  hate.  A  council  was  called  at 
Meaux  in  849  at  which  it  was  proposed  to  reinstitute  all 
anti-Jewish  laws  of  previous  councils ;  but  Charles  the 
Bald,  the  next  king,  was  as  unwilling  as  his  father  to 
countenance  anti-Jewish  legislation. 

Amolo,  again  following  his  master's  example,  issued 
a  slanderous  letter  against  the  Jews  to  all  the  clergy  of 
France.  While  affecting  no  change  at  first,  the  persist- 
ent virulence  gradually  told.  The  clergy  began  preach- 
ing anti-Jewish  sermons,  which  naturally  led  to  anti- 
Jewish  riots.  The  sermon  and  the  riot  became  an  annual 
Easter  institution — accompanied  in  Toulouse  by  a  box  on 
the  ear  of  a  representative  of  the  Jewish  community — an 
official  humiliation. 

"Selling 
Jews." 

Yes,  Jews  of  the  Prankish  Empire,  were  soon  to  learn 
that  their  tolerant  days  were  over.  All  the  indignities  of 
early  Spain  were  now  introduced  into  France.  In  the 
year  914,  Charles  the  Simple,  Charles  the  Bald's  suc- 
cessor, even  handed  over  the  lands  of  the  Jews  of  Nar- 
bonne  to  the  Church — on  the  inference,  more  menacing 
than  the  act,  that  the  Jews  were  the  property  of  the  em- 
peror. 

"Selling  Jews"  was  to  become  a  profitable  business  of 
kings.  This  royal  asset  could  often  be  transferred  and  it 
carried  with  it  the  right  of  taxation.  Otto  II  "presented" 
the  Jews  of  Merseburg  to  the  local  bishops.  However 
wantonly  they  may  have  been  fleeced  with  each  change, 
the  injury  to  their  dignity  in  this  humiliating  treatment 
as  chattels  was  their  gravest  and  most  enduring  loss. 


54  IIISTOKY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

\  Rabenu 
Gershom. 

So  far  their  external  condition.  But  internally  the 
Jews  had  always  lived  in  a  world  of  their  own — "the 
Law,"  in  which  they  could  occasionally  forget  the  hard 
world  without.  So  here  in  "lands  of  exile,"  as  they 
termed  all  territory  outside  of  Judaea,  we  shall  see  them 
creating  a  Jewish  atmosphere  around  them,  with  the 
synagogue  as  their  social  as  well  as  their  religious  focus. 

A  great  man  now  loomed  up  in  this  world  of  the  Law, 
Rabenu  Gershom.  Trained  perhaps  in  the  Narbonne 
school  established  by  Charlemagne,  he  left  France  and 
settled  in  Germany.  We  may  call  him  the  founder  of 
Talmudic  study  in  both  those  lands. 

As  scholar  first,  he  opened  a  Jewish  academy  in  May- 
ence  that  drew  students  from  many  lands.  All  reverently 
looked  up  to  this  teacher  as  their  religious  authority ;  he 
not  only  revised  the  text  of  the  Talmud,  but  his  explana- 
tions became  a  popular  commentary. 

The  custom  has  already  been  referred  to  for  different 
communities  to  send  their  religious  and  communal  ques- 
tions for  solution  to  renowned  rabbis.  Their  answers, 
Rcsponsa  (note,  p.  43),  were  accepted  as  addenda  to 
Talmudic  law.  Many  came  from  his  pen.  No  longer 
was  it  necessary  to  send  to  the  East  for  religious  guid- 
ance and  information.  France,  Germany  and  Italy  be- 
came independent  of  the  fast-dying  Babylonia.  We  shall 
see  Spain  following  their  example. 

A  Jewish 
Synod. 

But  Gershom  did  not  earn  his  title,  "Light  of  the 
Exile,"  simply  as  a  bookish  man.     To  him  all  turned  as 


A  "l^giit"  in   lands  of  exile  55 

trusted  guide  in  the  varied  perplexities  created  by  new 
conditions  and  environment. 

Seizing  the  opportunity  of  the  rehance  placed  upon 
him,  he  summoned  a  Jewish  Synod  in  the  year  looo. 
Though  obedience  to  him  and  his  colleagues  was  volun- 
tary, all  gladly  accepted  their  decisions  as  fmal  authority 
for  Jewish  practice,  and  their  decisions  open  a  new  chap- 
ter in  Jewish  law. 

First  and  most  important  was  the  practical  abrogation 
of  polygamy,  making  a  law  of  what  was  becoming  a  cus- 
tom that  a  man  should  have  but  one  wife.  For  mono- 
gamy is  always  presented  as  the  ideal  married  state,  even 
in  the  Bible. 

Secondly,  when  unfortunately  divorce  had  to  be  re- 
sorted to,  he  established  new  safeguards  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  more  helpless — the  women.  Henceforth,  as 
distinct  from  Talmudic  la^v,  the  wife's  consent  was  neces- 
sary. 

The  third  decision  concerned  those  who  were  forced 
by  cruel  edict  to  forsake  their  faith  for  a  time.  The  new 
law  was  in  the  direction  of  mercy ;  it  declared  that  once 
they  returned  to  the  fold  they  must  not  be  reproached. 
That  such  terrible  expedients  had  to  be  considered  was 
a  sad  commentary  on  the  times  of  persecution.  Alas ! 
this  very  experience  came  home  to  Rabbi  Gershom  in  the 
case  of  his  own  son.  He  was  forced  with  others  to  ab- 
jure his  faith,  when  a  fanatic  outbreak  \yas  launched 
against  the  Jews  imder  Henry  H.  R.  Gershom  voiced 
the  popular  sorrow  in  a  mournful  poem  and  in  a  series 
of  ScUchoth  (prayers  of  supplication  for  forgiveness). 

The  fourth  decision  touched  a  point  of  honor.  The 
traveler  who  carried  a  letter  from  one  friend  to  another 


56  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

was  forbidden  to  read  it,  though  it  were  unsealed,  under 
penalty  of  excommunication. 

So  Jewish  law — officially  closed  with  the  completion 
of  the  Talmud — continued  to  have  a  further  development 
through  frequent  Responsa  and  occasional  synods.  The 
expansion  and  classification  of  the  law  continued  to  be 
the  chief  occupation  of  Jewish  scholars  for  several  cen- 
turies to  come. 

Notes  and  References. 
Monogamy. 

Since  Gershom's  day  monogamy  has  become  Jewish 
law  for  the  Occident.  Two  hundred  years  earlier  the 
schools  in  Babylonia  had  made  the  taking  of  a  second 
wife  conditional  on  the  consent  of  the  first,  although 
polygamy  was  the  prevailing  custom  there. 

Polygamy  did  not  quite  die  out  in  Christendom  till  the 
sixteenth  century. 

Read  Jezvish  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages,  Abrahams,  ch. 
vii,  "Monogamy  and  the  Home,"  p.  122. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

The  advisability  and  practicability  of  a  Synod  today, 
advocated  by  some,  to  adjust  Jewish  practice  in  accord- 
ance with  modern  belief. 


57 


BOOK   IL 


SPAIN'S    GOLDEN    AGE 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


The    Crescent. 

Entrance   of   Arabi- 
ans   into   Spain...  711 

Independent       Cali- 
phate  of   Cordova  7SS 

Abder  -  Rahman     1, 
Caliph    SOO 

Abder-Rahman      II, 
Caliph    821 

Abder-Rahman       III, 
Caliph    912 


Alhakim,    Caliph...  »61 
(Orders      transla- 
tion of  Bible   into 
Arabic),    about... 1000 


Split  up  of  Cali- 
phate of  Cordova 
and  esta'  lishment 
of  Caliphates  of 
Saragossa,  S  e  - 
ville,  Granada, 
Murcia  and  To- 
ledo, about 1000 

Almoravide  Con- 
quest (Battle  of 
Zallaka)      I08C 

Alfonso  of  Castile 
conquers    Toledo  1086 


Jewry. 


Chss<}ai  Ibn  Shap- 
rut     b.  91S 

Italy.  Sabbathai 
Donolo,    physician  93C 

Departure  of  the 
four  scholars 
from  Babylonia, 
about     945 

Chushiel,   b.  900;   fl.   960 

Chushiel,  head  of 
Kairuan  A  c  a  d  - 
emy,   about    960 

Ibn  Janach,  Gram- 
marian      990 

rian     990 

C  h  a  y  u  j.  Gram- 
marian      990 

Samuel  Ibn  Nag- 
dela,     b 993 

Vizier    1027 

Alfassi,   b    1013 

Solomon    Ibn    Gabi- 

rol,     b 1021 

Nagdela    becomes 
Vizier     of     Gran- 
ada       1027 

Bachya,    fl lOSO 

Rashi.     b 1040 

Abu  Husain  (Nag- 
dela's  son).  Vizier 
of     Granada lOSS 

Albalia,  rabbi  of 
Seville,     about.  ..  .1060 

Joseph  Ibn  Migash, 
b 1077 

Je.hudah  Halevi,  b..l08S 


58 


INTERIOR  OF   SYNAGOGUE   AT  TOLEDO. 


59 

BOOK  II.     SPAIN'S  GOLDEN  AGE 

CHAPTER      VII. 

UNDER  THE  CALIPHATE  OF  CORDOVA. 

It  was  in  711  that  the  triumphant  Arabians  entered 
Spain  {T.  Y .,  p.  309).  Treated  at  first  as  a  trans-Medi- 
terranean dependency  of  Northern  Africa,  it  was  later 
governed  by  Emirs,  appointed  by  the  Cahph  of  Damascus. 
When  a  revolution  occurred  in  the  East  and  a  new  royal 
house  established  on  the  Moslem  throne,  the  dispossessed 
Ommeyade  dynasty  migrated  to  Spain,  severed  all  con- 
nections with  Damascus,  and  established  the  independent 
Caliphate  of  Cordova  in  the  year  755.  This  Western 
Caliphate  endured  for  four  centuries. 

From  that  time  the  greatness  of  Moslem  Spain  began. 
The  Christian  forces  that  had,  under  the  great  Martel, 
checked  the  northwestern  advance  of  the  Mohammedans 
in  the  battle  at  Tours,  now  suffered  reverses  at  the  hands 
of  the  new  and  energetic  dynasty,  and  its  first  king, 
Abder-Rahman  I,  even  inflicted  a  defeat  on  Charlemagne. 

Arabic  Scholarship 
and  Civilization. 

Remarkable  as  were  their  victories  in  war, — their  con- 
quests extending  through  Asia,  Africa  and  Europe,  with 
a  Caliphate  in  each  continent, — far  grander  were  their 
victories  in  peace.  Their  pen  was  mightier  than  their 
sword.  They  loved  learning  and  under  the  fostering 
encouragement  of  broad-minded  Caliphs  splendid  con- 
quests were  made  in  unmapped  realms  of  scholarship. 
Science  and  literature,  cultivated  by  the  highest,  were 
also  diffused  among  the  masses.  No  schools  excelled 
theirs.  This  spread  of  education  reacted  favorably  on 
social   conditions   in   general ;   under   Abder-Rahman    II 


6o  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

(821-852)  Moslem  Spain  was  the  best  governed  country 
in  Europe.  His  successors  followed  his  enlightened  pre- 
cedent. 3y  the  time  we  reach  Abder-Rahman  III,  we 
find  the  government  under  complete  orderly  organization. 
He  established  a  vigilant  police  system  and  furthered 
commerce ;  great  was  the  volume  of  exports  and  imports 
for  those  times.  Art  and  science  were  diligently  fostered 
and  already  in  that  early  day  a  scientific  method  of  irri- 
gation was  devised  for  improving  the  soil. 

What  a  world  of  difi^erence  such  an  environment  meant 
for  the  Jews  of  the  Spanish  Peninsula ! 

Under  the  rule  of  the  Visigoths  in  the  seventh  century 
they  had  been  taxed,  banned,  mutilated  and  exiled.  Big- 
oted kings  such  as  Erwig  and  Egica  and  still  more  big- 
oted bishops  had  imposed  baptism  by  force  and  had  torn 
children  from  parents  to  insure  their  complete  severance 
from  the  Synagogue  {T.  Y .,  chap,  xxxix).  All  that 
was  over  now. 

The  Moslem  hailed  the  Jews  with  almost  the  heartiness 
that  his  ancestors  had  welcomed  them  in  Arabia  before 
Mahomet's  day.  They  were  further  sought  as  the  pos- 
sessors of  knowledge  for  which  the  Arabians  thirsted. 
Jews  certainly  led  the  way  in  natural  science.  So  in  addi- 
tion to  those  already  there,  many  refugees  from  inhos- 
pitable surroundings  found  homes  in  the  Peninsula.  The 
blessings  of  religious  liberty,  personal  security,  and  social 
esteem  were  theirs.  Hand  in  hand  the  Moor  and  the  Jew 
made  explorations  in  the  realn;s  of  knowledge,  and  their 
united  achievements  kindled  a  light  in  the  Peninsula  that 
shone  the  more  brilliantly  in  contrast  with  the  sombre 
background  of  Europe's  Dark  Ages. 

Of  Israel's  literary  activity  in  the  first  hundred  years 
of  Moslem  rule  we  hear  little  or  nothing.  Periods  of 
persecution  are  unfavorable  to  literary  culture;  and  in 


UNDER  THE  CALIPHATE  OF   CORDOVA  6l 

the  generation  or  two  immediately  following,  all  energies 
were  monoix)lized  for  material  rehabilitation.  So  it  was 
not  till  Abder-Rahman  III,  "Prince  of  the  Faithful," 
became  Caliph  in  912  that  we  begin  to  hear  of  the  Spanish 
Jew  as  scholar.  Learned  Jews  were  despatched  to  distant 
lands  to  gather  books  and  to  copy  manuscripts.  Soon  the 
library  of  Cordova  alone  had  400,000  volumes.  By  the 
end  of  the  tenth  century  the  Spanish  schools  were  famous 
throughout  Europe. 

From  Babylon 
to  Spain. 

Just  as  this  golden  era  was  dawning  in  Spain  the  sun 
was  setting  in  the  Babylonian  East.  Before  950  the 
School  of  Sora  had  closed  its  doors  and  the  last  "Prince 
of  the  Exile"  had  closed  his  reign. 

So  the  anxious  rabbis  sent  forth  four  scholars  of  re- 
nown to  their  brethren  west  and  south  to  gather  funds  for 
the  re-establishment  of  the  fallen  School.  Fate  decided 
that  these  ambassadors  of  learning  should  render  a  serv- 
ice to  Judaism  rather  than  to  Babylonia.  In  the  story  of 
their  adventures  it  is  difficult  to  disentangle  history  from 
tradition.  Their  ship  being  captured  they  were  separated. 
Providence  carried  each,  so  runs  the  story,  to  a  different 
land,  to  plant  the  seeds  of  Jewish  scholarship.  One  was 
carried  to  Narbonne  in  France,  another  to  Cairo  in 
Egypt,  a  third  gave  a  new  impetus  to  learning  in  the 
old  Jewish  settlement  of  Kairuan  in  Tunis.  But  it  is 
with  the  fourth  we  are  most  concerned. 

Moses  ben 
Chenoch. 

His  name  was  Moses  ben  Chenoch.  The  brutal  cap- 
tain endeavored  to  seize  his  beautiful  wife.  Facing  the 
fearfvU  alternative  of   death  or  dishonor,   she   readily 


62  HlSTOi<Y     OF     THE      MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

obeyed  the  Jewish  injunction  to  choose  the  former;  and, 
throwing  herself  in  the  sea  became  a  martyr  to  her  faith. 
Moses  and  his  motherless  boy  were  brought  as  slaves  to 
Cordova.  Ransomed  by  his  brethren — a  sacred  obliga- 
tion cheerfully  borne  by  all  Jewish  communities  in  the 
Middle  Ages — he  found  his  way  to  the  Jewish  Academy 
already  established.  How  much  it  tells  of  the  nature  of 
this  driven  people  that  a  refugee  will  seek  his  brethren 
in  the  House  of  Learning!  But  rabbinic  scholarship  was 
still  of  too  early  a  growth  in  Spain  to  have  attained  dis- 
tinction. The  ragged  refugee  sat  in  the  background  list- 
ening to  the  Talmudic  discussion.  Modestly  suggesting 
a  criticism  to  the  presiding  rabbi,  the  students  at  once 
recognized  that  they  were  in  the  presence  of  a  scholar. 
With  noble  self-denial  the  teacher  said,  "I  can  no  longer 
be  your  judge  and  rabbi ;  this  poor  stranger  should  take 
my  place."  Learning  was  the  only  aristocracy  recognized 
by  the  rabbis.  So  Moses  ben  Chenoch  became  the  head 
of  the  Cordova  Academy  and  he  brought  new  interest  to 
the  study  of  the  Law.  As  Babylonia  had  now  become 
independent  of  the  teachers  of  Palestine,  so  Spain  soon 
became  independent  of  those  of  Babylonia. 

The  time  was  most  propitious.  The  Caliph  was  not 
only  a  patron  of  letters  but  a  litterateur  himself,  a  poet 
of  no  mean  order.  He  was  delighted  to  learn  that  a 
scholar  had  arrived  who  would  give  such  prestige  to  the 
Spanish  Academy  as  to  make  it  independent  of  the  East- 
ern Gaonate.  It  meant,  among  other  things,  that  the 
Jews  would  no  longer  be  sending  their  money  out  of  the 
country  to  support  foreign  academies.  They  would 
spend  it  at  home.  It  recalls  a  similar  policy  of  Charle- 
magne over  a  century  earlier. 

Like  their  Arabian  ancestors,  the  Moors  regarded  the 
poetic  gift  as  the  hall-mark  of  a  gentleman.     So  almost 


UNDKR   TIIK   CALiriL\TE   OF   CORDOVA  63 

an  ideal  status  was  attained  in  so  far  that  scholars  were 
appointed  to  the  highest  public  offices.  Under  such  a 
stimulating  environment  the  Spanish  period  became  the 
classic  epoch  of  Jewish  poetry. 

Seeking  men  of  literary  culture  for  positions  of  emi- 
nence, it  is  not  surprising  that  under  this  broad-minded 
regime  many  Jews  should  be  welcomed  in  the  service  of 
the  State.  While  in  Christendom  they  were  being  shut 
out  of  all  public  office,  we  shall  see  them  taking  a  steadily 
larger  part  in  public  administration  in  Spain.  Here  was 
a  new  outlet  for  their  intellectual  capacity.  The  Jew  as 
statesman  had  not  been  heard  of  since  the  Temple's  fall. 

Chasdai 

as  Statesman. 

The  first  thus  chosen,  who  attained  lasting  eminence 
was  Chasdai  Ibn  S  hap  nit.  We  may  say  he  was  the 
first  Jew  who  made  his  presence  felt  in  Europe.  For  in 
the  past,  distinction  so  far  had  been  attained  only  in  Asia 
(Palestine)  and  in  Africa  (Egypt).  Chasdai  was  the  first 
of  a  long  line  of  Jewish  litterateurs,  scientists  and  states- 
men, appearing  in  one  European  land  or  another  in 
almost  unbroken  succession  to  the  present  day. 

Chasdai  was  born  about  the  year  915,  twenty-three 
years  after  Saadyah  saw  the  light  in  Egypt  (p.  39).  He 
was  an  all-round  scholar.  Among  other  things  he  wrote 
on  botany  "as  it  had  never  been  treated  before."  He 
was  first  brought  to  the  notice  of  Abder-Rahman  HI  as 
a  physician.  Later  his  value  was  discovered  as  a  linguist, 
for  among  other  languages  he  also  knew  Latin — a  rare 
acquisition  for  Jew  or  Moor  then.  This  meant  that  he 
could  act  as  interpreter  to  ambassadors  from  Christian 
lands.  Then  his  capacity  as  a  diplomat  became  evident : 
so  with  growing  reliance  on  his  ability  he  became  not  only 


64  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

the  interpreter  of  the  Cahph's  emissaries,  but  one  of 
them.  This  trust  of  the  CaHph  went  further  yet  and 
he  became  confidential  counselor.  He  was  in  fact  an 
untitled  vizier.  He  really  fulfilled  the  cabinet  functions 
that  would  now  be  styled  Secretary  of  Foreign  afifairs, 
Home  Secretary  and  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer.  He 
was  also  given  control  of  the  customs.  But  his  greater 
services  were  in  the  realm  of  diplomacy.  He  strength- 
ened the  relations  with  both  Leon  and  Navarre.  His 
tact  saved  friction  between  the  Caliph  and  the  German 
Empire. 

Chasdai 
As  Jew. 

Splendid  as  were  his  services  to  the  Moslem  state, 
equally  valuable  were  his  services  to  the  Jewish  commun- 
ity. He  was  their  representative  to  the  State,  their  ad- 
vocate in  the  hour  of  need — for  not  every  Moslem  was 
free  from  anti-Jewish  prejudice.  He  corresponded  with 
Jewish  scholars  in  other  lands  and  through  foreign  am- 
bassadors was  able  to  aid  his  brethren  afar.  Like  many 
in  our  midst  today,  he  believed  that  a  religion  needs  a  na- 
tional background  and  that  the  possession  of  a  State 
would  give  further  stability  and  prestige  to  Judaism. 

Hearing  of  the  Jewish  kingdom  of  the  Chazars,  he 
entered  into  correspondence  with  their  king.  It  is  to  this 
correspondence  that  we  are  largely  indebted  for  more 
intimate  knowledge  of  this  proselyte  people.     (See  ch.  v.) 

Chasdai  was  largely  responsible  for  the  appointment 
of  Moses  ben  Chenoch  and  for  the  importance  given  to 
the  Talmudic  academy.  From  his  own  purse  he  pur- 
chased many  of  its  books  and  supported  many  of  its 
scholars. 

It  was  due  to  his  enthusiasm  and  to  the  encouragement 
he  rendered  in  all  fields  of  learning  that  culture  spread 


tlNDER  TliR  CALIPHATE  OF  CORDOVA  65 

from  Cordova  through  the  whole  province  of  Andalusia. 
The  critical  study  of  Hebrew  grammar  to  which  the  Ka- 
raites had  given  the  impetus  in  the  Orient  was  trans- 
planted to  this  more  favorable  environment.  Chasdai 
encouraged  the  writing  of  poetry,  too.  Imbibing  the 
Arabian  love  of  verse,  the  Spanish  Jews  entered  eagerly 
into  this  field,  at  first,  but  following  Arabian  models. 
Then  Dunash  ben  Labrat  introduced  metre.  They  did 
not  confine  themselves  to  the  Synagogue  liturgy  as  Kalir 
and  his  school  (p.  26),  but  branched  out  into  secular 
themes.  So  the  way  was  prepared  for  the  great  poets 
yet  to  come. 

Lucena  and  Granada  also  had  their  academies.  The 
translation  of  the  Mishna  into  Arabic  shows  that  it  was 
becoming  their  native  tongue  here  as  well  as  in  the  land 
of  Saadyah;  and  that  the  Arabic  version  was  asked  for 
by  the  reigning  Caliph,  shows  the  interest  of  the  Moors 
.in  Jewish  literature. 

The  name  Chasdai  deserves  to  be  given  to  this  first 
Spanish  epoch.  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  spread  of 
general  culture  did  not  lead  to  religious  negligence — as  it 
sometimes  does — but  rather  to  religious  exaltation.  It 
broadened  the  Jewish  outlook  without  in  any  way  lessen- 
ing their  spiritual  earnestness. 

Notes  and  References. 

Moslem  Spain  included  Arabs,  Berbers,  also  styled 
Moors,  Egyptians  and  Syrians. 

Caliph  Alhakin  II,  who  asked  for  an  Arabic  translation 
of  the  Bible,  was  a  great  patron  of  learning.  He  col- 
lected, it  is  said,  a  library  of  400,000  volumes. 

Kairnan  Academy. 

Kairuan  (Northern  Africa),  whither  one  of  the  four 
scholars  from  Babylonia  was  said  to  have  drifted,  had 


66 


HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 


already  establislied  a  Jewish  academy.  Just  as  Moses  ben 
Chenoch  had  been  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Cordova 
school,  so  the  refugee  scholar  Chushicl  was  made  Rosh 
(Head)  of  the  Kairuan  academy.  In  this  school  was 
trained  the  all-round  scholar  Dunash,  born  in  year  9J0. 
To  Dunash,  Kairuan  owed  a  scientific  comprehension  of 
Judaism.  This  community  revived  the  study  of  the  Pal- 
estinian Talmud,  which  had  been  neglected  for  the  Baby- 
lonian {T.  Y .,  p.  251).  But  this  environment  was  not 
favorable  for  its  long  maintenance  as  a  Jewish  seat  of 
yearning. 

Hebrczv  Groiiimar. 

To  this  period  also  belong  Chayuj,  father  of  Hebrew 
grammar,  the  first  to  grasp  in  its  completeness  the  genius 
of  the  Hebrew  tongue.  His  knowledge  of  Arabic  enabled 
him  to  make  it  a  comparative  study. 

Menachem  ben  Saruk,  one  of  Chasdai's  proteges,  com- 
piled a  dictionary  and  grammar,  superseding  previous 
works  of  its  kind. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

Was  the  need  for  a  Jewish  nation  greater  in  Chasdai's 
day  than  in  ours? 


THE    SYNAGOGUE     AT     ERFURT 


67 

CHAI'TER     VI  T  I. 

JEWS  AS  VIZIERS. 

Moslem 
Disunion. 

At  the  end  of  the  tenth  century  a  conflict  for  the 
CaHphate  led  to  civil  war.  The  results  were  disastrous 
for  the  future  of  Moslem  power  in  Spain  ;  for  the  one 
Caliphate  of  Cordova  was  now  split  into  a  dozen.  The 
Moslem  had  not  learned  that  "in  union  there  is  strength." 
They  knew  how  to  conquer  lands,  but  not  so  well  how  to 
hold  them. 

The  chief  of  these  minor  Caliphates  were  Saragossa, 
Seville,  Granada,  Murcia  and  Toledo.  ( Note  these  places 
on  the  map  at  end  of  book).  In  consequence  of  the  dis- 
turbed conditions  following  the  civil  war,  many  Jews  left 
Cordova  for  these  different  principalities. 

Among  those  who  emigrated  to  Malaga  in  Granada 
was  Samuel  Ibn  Nagdcla,  a  man  on  whom  fell  the  mantle 
of  Chasdai  and  of  whom  also  we  may  say  he  was  "gifted 
with  a  double  portion  of  his  spirit."  As  in  Cordova,  so 
here,  Jews  were  admitted  to  posts  of  honor  in  the  public 
service. 

Ibn  Nagdela 
Vizier  of  Granada. 

Ibn  Nagdela,  true  to  classic  Jewish  tradition,  earned 
his  living  not  by  his  learning  but  by  his  trade.  Yet  fidel- 
ity to  the  latter  won  recognition  for  the  former.  Brought 
to  the  notice  of  the  Grand  Vizier  by  his  excellent  pen- 
manship and  his  knowledge  of  tongues,  he  was  engaged 
as  secretary,     >l?re  in  the  Vizier's  service  his  greater 


68  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

gifts  were  revealed.  He  won  his  master's  confidence, 
and,  like  Chasdai,  was  gradually  consulted  on  all  affairs 
of  State.  On  his  deathbed,  the  vizier  confessed  to  the 
king  of  Granada,  who  was  lamenting  his  irreparable  loss, 
that  his  great  diplomatic  success  had  been  due  to  his 
humble  Jewish  secretary.  What  wonder,  then,  that  the 
wise  king  should  now  appoint  him  to  the  vacant  office  of 
vizier,  in  1027!  Here  was  the  shopkeeper  raised  to  the 
position  of  prime  minister,  like  Joseph  of  old.  Upon  his 
shoulders  more  than  upon  those  of  the  king  rested  the 
responsibility  of  the  State.  His  post  was  something  like 
that  of  a  premier  of  England,  unlimited  by  Parliament. 

No  fact  can  better  demonstrate  the  social  status  of  the 
Jews  under  the  rule  of  the  Mohammedan  Berbers  in 
Granada  than  that  one  of  their  number  should  be  raised 
to  the  highest  State  office.  But  some  zealous  Moslems 
did  not  like  to  see  an  Israelite  placed  over  them — for 
average  humanity  will  tolerate  minorities  only  so  long  as 
they  are  kept  humbly  in  the  background.  But  Nagdela's 
graciousness  disarmed  his  would-be  enemies,  and  his 
modestv  won  over  his  rivals.  So  he  continued  in  office 
under  the  next  king  with  added  powers.  Here  is  an  in- 
stance of  his  magnanimity :  Reviled  by  a  spice  dealer  in 
the  royal  presence,  the  irate  king  ordered  the  offender's 
tongue  cut  out.  Nagdela  interposed  and  tried  the  gentler 
method  of  overcoming  evil  with  good.  "I  have  removed 
his  evil  tongue  and  put  a  good  one  in  its  place." 

On  the  king's  death,  Ibn  Nagdela  risked  his  life  in 
support  of  the  son,  Badis,  for  the  throne,  against  the 
rivalry  of  the  younger  brother.  Since  this  timely  aid 
helped  to  secure  the  kingdom  to  the  rightful  though  not 
wholly  worthy  heir,  it  immensely  increased  his  prestige. 
He  now  became  more  than  ever  the  power  behind  thq 
throne  of  Granada, 


JEWS  AS  VIZIERS  6^ 

Ibn  Nagdela 
as  "Nagid." 

Now  to  consider  the  man  in  relation  to  his  coreHgion- 
ists:  From  the  nature  of  his  office,  Nagdela  had  to  use 
the  formula  "Mahomet,  God's  prophet."  It  is  a  nice 
question  of  moral  discrimination  as  to  whether  he  was 
justified  as  a  Jew  in  publicly  uttering  that  which  was 
part  of  a  Moslem's  declaration  of  faith,  but  which  in 
one  sense  a  Jew  could  sincerely  voice.  Great  religious 
teachers  of  all  faiths  may  be  called  prophets  of  God.  But 
granting  he  had  that  thought  in  mind,  to  the  Moslem  it 
meant  the  one  prophet  superseding  all  others. 

Certainly,  when  it  came  to  his  practical  service,  he  was 
as  loyal  to  his  coreligionists  as  Nagid  (prince)  as  he  was 
to  the  Moslems  as  vizier.  To  the  Jewish  community 
he  was,  so  to  speak,  Resh  Galutha  and  Gaon  in  one 
without  really  possessing  either  of  those  titles.  But  his 
power  was  exercised  not  in  display  of  authority  but  in 
rendering  timely  aid.  Very  valuable  was  his  assistance 
granted  to  students,  both  as  patron  and  scholar.  This 
versatile  man  found  time  in  the  midst  of  affairs  of  State 
to  compile  a  Talmud  manual  (Mebo)  explaining  all 
technical  expressions,  a  Talmud  commentary,  a  treatise 
on  grammar  and  a  psalter  for  the  synagogue.  From  his 
pen,  too,  came  proverbs,  philosophic  essays  and  songs. 
Not  a  great  poet,  yet  he  wrote  poetry,  as  did  all  littera- 
teurs of  that  time.  So,  under  his  fostering  direction, 
Spanish  Jewish  culture  throve  and  spread. 

The  "Ethics  of  the  Fathers"  (a  book  of  the  Mishna) 
speaks  of  three  crowns — the  crown  of  the  Law,  of  the 
priesthood  and  the  crown  of  royalty ;  but  adding  that  the 
crown  of  good  deeds  excels  them  all.  His  grateful  co- 
religionists ascribed  something  of  each  of  these  to  Nag- 
dela with  yet  an  added  crown  of  fame.     For  when  he 


70  niSTOI^Y     OF     THE      MRDTAEVAL     JEWS 

died,  in  1055,  he  left  behind  him  that  good  name,  "better 
than  precious  ointment,"  shedding  lustre  upon  his  time 
and  lamented  alike  by  Arab  and  by  Jew.  ^ 

Distinguished 
Successors. 

Abu  Husain  Joseph  Ibn  Nagdela  succeeded  his  father 
as  vizier  of  Granada,  and,  as  Nagid  of  the  Jewish  com- 
munity. He,  too,  was  a  scholar  and  a  patron  of  scholars 
but  did  not  inherit  his  father's  modesty.  Whether  it  was 
his  too  marked  preference  for  his  coreligionists  in  his 
appointments  or  the  somewhat  ostentatious  splendor  sur- 
rounding him,  he  certainly  aroused  the  antagonism  of  the 
upper  classes.  They  even  fabricated  against  him  a 
charge  of  poisoning  the  prince.  Humanely  frustrating 
a  project  of  King  Badis  to  massacre  the  Arabs  (oppon- 
ents of  the  later  arrived  Moors),  he  fell  still  further 
from  favor.  Accused  of  conspiring  with  the  enemies  of 
Granada,  he  was  cruelly  slain,  and  some  fifteen  families 
shared  his  fate ;  in  other  towns,  many  were  exiled.  This 
was  the  first  persecution  in  Moslem  Spain. 

In  others  of  these  independent  Spanish  provinces  Jews 
continued  to  be  received  with  favor.  The  Granada  out- 
break was  but  a  passing  wave ;  still  such  waves,  reveal- 
ing occasional  jealousy  or  bigotry,  might  pass  again  and 
did.  Saragossa  also  chose  Jewish  viziers.  One,  Jeku- 
thiel  Hassan,  whose  untimely  death  was  immortalized  in 
an  elegy  of  Solomon  Gabirol,  the  subject  of  the  next 
chapter.  Another,  Abu-Fadhl,  to  tell  of  whom  that  he 
was  a  poet  is  almost  to  recount  a  platitude.  In  powerful 
Seville,  Albalia,  rabbi  of  the  community,  was  court  as- 
tronomer and  astrologer !  Astrology  had  not  yet  been 
expelled  from  the  family  of  the  sciences. 

Other  provinces  followed  the  example  of  Seville  and 


JEWS  AS  VIZIERS  "/l 

Saragossa.  To  such  congenial  surroundings  came  Isaac 
Alfassi  of  Fez  to  become  rabbi  of  Lucena.  He  will  al- 
ways be  remembered  for  his  digest  of  Talmudic  law, 
api)roi)riately  styled  Ilalachoth  (the  term  applied  to  Tal- 


ISAAC    ALFASSI 

mudic  legal  decisions  as  distinct  from  Agadath — the  nar- 
rative portion,  (T.  Y .,  p.  187).  In  this  digest,  more 
famous  than  any  of  its  predecessors,  he  wisely  omits  all 
laws  that  had  lost  practical  application. 

Decline  of 
the  Moors. 

Yes,  all  went  well  for  Israel  in  Moorish  Spain.     But 
its  break-up  '  ito  petty  principalities  marks  the  decline  of 


72  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

its  power.  So  far,  the  advance  of  the  resolute  forces  of 
Christendom  had  held  back  at  the  Pyrenees ;  but  they 
were  not  slow  to  watch  their  advantage,  while  the  Moors 
were  weakening  their  own  power  by  fighting  among  them- 
selves. 

Unfortunately  for  their  permanent  possession  of  Spain, 
the  Moors  contemptuously  disregarded  their  northern 
neighbors  in  the  mountains.  It  is  always  dangerous  to 
slight  an  enemy.  Step  by  step  the  Christian  was  creep- 
ing southward.  When  we  reach  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century,  we  will  see  he  had  acquired  three  kingdoms  in 
the  Peninsula — Castile,  Aragon  and  Navarre. 

For  the  time  being  the  Jews  also  saw  no  alarm  in  these 
advances.  The  enlightened  liberality  of  the  Moslem  fa- 
vorably affected  their  northern  neighbors  and  the  three 
Christian  nations  of  Spain  followed  the  tolerant  example 
of  the  Moors.  But  we  shall  later  see  that  as  their  sway 
increased  their  liberality  decreased. 

In  Christian 
Castile. 

Alfonso  VI  of  Castile  was  the  most  enterprising  of 
these  Christian  kings.  He  conquered  Toledo  and  tried 
to  take  Seville.  He  was  broad-minded  and  enlightened. 
Finding  the  great  capacity  of  the  Jews  so  well  fitted 
them  for  offices  of  state  and  the  delicate  diplomacy  of 
ambassadors,  he  entrusted  posts  of  honor  and  responsi- 
bility to  them.  It  is  true  the  powerful  pope,  Gregory 
VII,  thundered  his  objections,  writing  that  "tt)  allow 
Christians  to  be  subordinate  to  the  Jews  is  the  same  as 
oppressing  God's  church  and  exalting  Satan's  synagogue." 
But  Alfonso  paid  small  heed  and  tried  to  institute  equal- 
ity among  all  his  subjects. 

Alarmed,  at  Alfonso's  conquests,  the  Sevilliaa  monarch. 


JEWS  AS  VIZIERS  73 

called  in  the  aid  of  his  Mohammedan  hrethren  across 
the  Mediterranean  in  Africa — the  Alnioravides.  In  1086 
the  Christian  army  was  routed  at  Zallaka,  patriotic  Jews 
fighting  on  hoth  sides,  each  group  loyal  to  the  i)articular 
government  under  which  they  were  living.  The  Almo- 
ravides  now  became  the  ruling  power  in  southern  Spain 
and  for  a  time  restored  Moslem  prestige.  Though  less 
tolerant  than  the  Berbers,  they  appointed  Jews  to  high 
posts  of  trust.  So  Christendom's  advance  was  checked ; 
but  only  for  a  time. 

Notes  and  References. 

Ibn  Janach  and  Ibn  Migash 

Ibn  Janach  (990-1050),  one  of  the  exiles  of  Saragossa, 
something  of  a  poet,  notable  as  a  physician  and  likewise 
as  a  biblical  exegete,  won  renown  as  a  master  in  gram- 
matical structure  of  Hebrew.  He  went  beyond  the  con- 
clusions of  Chayuj,  his  revered  teacher.  The  science 
of  Hebrew  syntax  was  his  creation — and  the  theme  of 
his  greatest  work,  "The  Critique." 

Joseph  Ibn  Migash  (1067-1141)  was  a  pupil  and 
worthy  successor  of  Alfassi. 

Jezvish  Viziers 

One  critic  considers  that  the  so-called  Jewish  viziers- 
and  treasurers  of  Spain  were  not  very  dissimilar  to  the 
Hof-Juden,  court  Jews,  of  whom  we  hear  in  the  eight- 
eenth century,  Graetz  places  them  much  higher. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

In  contrast  with  Ibn  Nagdela,  David  Salomons  and 
Baron  Rothschild  in  1848  refused  to  take  the  oath  "on 
the  true  faith  of  a  Christian"  and  preferred  to  resign 
their  seats  to  which  they  had  been  electe;d  in  the  English 
Parlianaent.. 


74  IlISTOKV     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 


CHAPTER      IX. 

IBN  GABIROL,  POET  AND  PHILOSOPHER 

"I  ivill  oujravc  my  songs  i)idclibl\ 
upon  the  heart  of  the  ivorld,  so  that 
no  one  can  efface  them."— Gab\rol. 

Genius  needs  only  a  favorable  environment  to  reveal 
itself.  The  Spanish  period  was  a  golden  age  in  Jewish 
literature,  because  it  was  a  golden  age  in  Jewish  history. 

"No  one  star  sets  before  another  rises,"  says  a  sage. 
But  here  the  constellations  shone  side  by  side  in  lumi- 
nous prodigality. 

In  Solomon  Ibn  Gabirol  we  meet  one  of  the  most 
original  minds  among  Jews  or  Arabs. 

Ibn  Gabirol's 
Youth. 

Of  Gabirol  the  man  we  know  little.  Born  in  Malaga 
about  1 02 1,  the  early  loss  of  his  parents  gave  a  serious 
bent  to  a  disposition  naturally  pensive.  This  may  have 
been  intensified  by  struggle  with  poverty.  Driven  to 
Saragossa  by  the  same  civil  war  that  also  brought  Nag- 
dela  there,  he  was  later  compelled  to  leave,  to  escape  the 
enemies  he  made  through  his  morose,  perhaps  haughty, 
and  highly  sensitive  character.  Genius  is  often  mis- 
understood. Yet  he  found  kind  patrons — first  in  Yeku- 
thiel  Hassan,  the  Jewish  vizier,  and  later  in  Ibn  Nagdela. 

His  strange  temperament  may  be  indicated  in  these 
lines  from  his  "Night  Thoughts": 

"1   follow  fortune  not,  where'er  she  lead. 
Lord  o'er  myself,   I   banish  her,  compel. 
And  though  her  clouds  should  rain  no  blessed  dew. 
Though  she  withhold  the  crown,  the  heart's  desire. 


inN    GABIROL.    POET   AND   PHILOSOPHER  "5 

Though  all  deceive,  thoc^gh  honey  change  to  gall, 
Still  ani  I  lord,  and  will  in  freedom  strive." 

Tnmslatcd  by  Emiiia  Lazarus. 
The  poet  was  already  revealed  in  the  youth  and  his 
fame  soon  spread  to  r>ench  Provence  in  the  west  and 
as  far  as  Babylonia  in  the  east.  Some  verses  were  writ- 
ten by  the  lad  in  praise  of  his  friend  Yekuthiel ;  but  soon 
the  eulogy  was  changed  to  an  elegy,  for  the  vizier  was 
slain. 

Adapting  the  Arabic  poetic  canons,  he  brought  He- 
brew poetry  to  its  highest  stage  of  development.  The 
Hebrew  tongue  was  moulded  into  new  rhyme  and 
rhythm  in  the  hands  of  this  young  master,  who,  at  nine- 
teen, dexterously  treated  in  verse  so  unpromising  a  sub- 
ject as  Hebrew  grammar,  and  who  put  into  rhyme  the 
613  precepts,  arranged  alphabetically  and  acrostically. 

Plis  poems  have  been  translated  into  many  tongues. 
We  append  some  translated  extracts : — 

From  "Meditation  on  Life." 
{Used  in  Yom  Kippnr  Memorial  Service.) 
Forget  thine  anguish, 
Vexed  heart,  again. 
Why  shouldst  thou  languish 

With  earthly  pain? 
The  husk  shall  slumber, 

Bedded  in  clay 
Silent  and  sombre, 
Oblivion's  prey ! 
But,  Spirit  immortal, 
Thou  at  Death's  portal, 

Trembles  with  fear. 
H  he  caress  thee. 
Curse  three  or  bless  thee. 
Thou  must  draw  near, 
From  him  the  worth  of  thy  works  to  heai 

Life  is  a  vine  branch  ; 
A  vintager,  death ; 


76  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

He  threatens  and  lowers 

More  near  with  each  breath. 
Then  hasten,  arise ! 

Seek  God,  oh  my  soul ! 
For  time  quickly  flies, 

Still  far  as  the  goal. 
Vain  heart  praying  dumbly, 
Learn  to  prize  humbly, 

The  meanest  of  fare. 
Forget  all  thy  sorrow, 

Behold,  death  is  there! 

Translated  by  Emma  Lazarus. 

What  Is  Man  ? 

Almighty!  what  is  man? 

The  haughty  son  of  time 
Drinks  deep  of  sin, 

And  feeds  on  crime 
Seething  like  waves  that  roll, 
Hot  as  a  glowing  coal. 

And  wilt  thou  punish  him  for  sins  inborn? 

Lost  and  forlorn, 
Then  like  the  weakling  he  must  fall, 
Who  some  great  hero  strives  withal. 

Oh,  spare  him,  therefore!  let  him  win 

Grace  for  his  sin ! 

Almighty!  what  is  man? 

A  withered  bough ! 
When  he  is  awestruck  by  approaching  doom 

Like  a  dried  blade  of  grass,  so  weak,  so  low, 
The  pleasure  of  his  life  is  changed  to  gloom. 

He  crumbles  like  a  garment  spoiled  with  moth; 

According  to  his  sins  wilt  Thou  be  wroth? 
He  melts  like  wax  before  the  candle's  breath, 
Yea,  like  thin  water,  so  he  vanisheth. 

Oh,  spare  him,  therefore,  for  Thy  gracious  name, 

And  be  not  too  severe  upon  his  shame ! 

Almighty!  what  is  man? 

A  faded  leaf. 
If  thou  dost  weigh  him  in  the  balance — lo ! 


IBN   GABIKOL,   POET   AND   PHILOSOPHER  // 

He  disappears — a  breath  that  thou  dost  blow. 

His  heart  is  ever  filled 

With  lust  of  lies  unstilled.  . 

Wilt  bear  in  mind  his  crime 
Unto  all  time  ? 

He  fades  away  like  clouds  sun-kissed, 

Dissolves  like  mist. 
Then  spare  him !  let  him  love  and  mercy  win, 
According  to  Thy  grace,  and  not  according  to  his  sin ! 
Translated  by  Emma  Lazarus. 

From  "Happy  He  Who  Saw  of  Old/' 

Happy  he  who  saw  of  old 

The  high  priest,  with  gems  and  gold 

All  adorned  from  crown  to  hem, 

Tread  thy  courts,  Jerusalem, 

Till  he  reached  the  sacred  place 

Where  the  Lord's  especial  grace 

Ever  dwelt,  the  centre  of  the  whole. 
Happy  he  whose  eyes 
Saw  at  last  the  cloud  of  glory  rise. 

But  to  hear  of  it  afflicts  our  soul. 

Happy  he  who  saw  the  crowd, 

That  in  adoration  bowed. 

As  they  heard  the  priest  proclaim, 

"One,  Inefifable,  the  Name," 

And  they  answered,  "Blessed  be 

God,  the  Lord  eternally. 

He  whom  all  created  worlds  extol." 

Happy  he  whose  eyes 

Saw  at  last  the  cloud  of  glory  rise  ; 
But  to  hear  of  it  afflicts  our  soul. 

Translated  by  Nina  Davis. 

Verses  from  "A  Song  of  Redemption.'" 

Captive  of  sorrow  on  a  foreign  shore, 
A  handmaid  as  'neath  Egypt's  slavery: 

Through  the  dark  day  of  her  bereavement  sore 
She  looketh  unto  Thee. 

Restore  her  sons,  O  mighty  One  of  old ! 


yS  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

Her  remnant  tenth  shall  cause  man's  strife  to  cease. 
O  speed  the  message  ;  swiftly  he  she  told 
Good  tidings,  which  Elijah  shall  unfold, 
Daughter  of  Zion,  sing  aloud !  behold 

Thy  Prince  of  Peace ! 
Wounded  and  crushed,  beneath  my  load  I  sigh, 

Despised  and  abject,  outcast,  trampled  low; 
How  long,  O  Lord,  shall  I  of  violence  cry. 

My  heart  dissolved  with  woe? 
How  many  years,  without  a  gleam  of  light, 

Has  thraldom  been  our  lot,  our  portion  pain! 
With  Ishmael  as  a  lion  in  his  might 
And  Persia,  as  an  owl  of  darksome  night, 
Beset  on  either  side,  behold  our  plight 

Betwixt  the  twain. 

Translated  by  Nina  Davis. 
The  "Royal 
Crown.'* 

A  poem,  partly  religious  and  partly  philosophical, 
called  "K ether  Malchuth"  (The  Royal  Crown),  depicts 
the  sublimity  of  God  and  His  relation  to  the  world 
and  to  man,  and  in  turn  man's  responsibility  to  his 
Maker. 

Portions  of  his  work  are  incorporated  in  our  Ritual 
for  Atonement.     We  quote  some  translated  extracts : 

My  God,  I  know  that  mine  iniquity 

Is  heavier  than  my  feeble  words  express. 

And  to  recount  my  trespasses  to  Thee 

Doth  memory  fail,  for  they  are  numberless. 

Yet  some  do  haunt  my  mind,  but  these  indeed 

Are  as  a  drop  of  water  from  my  sea 
Of' sin,  whose  roaring  billows  may  recede, 

And  by  confession,  calm'd  and  silenced  be. 

O  Thou  in  Heav'n,  pray  list,  and  pardon  me. 

Though  great  the  sorrows  that  o'erwhelm  my  brow. 
These  sorrows  issue  from  Thy  righteous  hand, 

Where  mercy  ever  dwelleth ;  hence  I  bow 

And  court  the  shaft  that  sped  at  Thy  command. 


IBN   GABIKOL,    I'OlCT   AND   PIIILOSOPI I KR  ^C 

My  God,  I  mourn  for  self-accusers  rise; 

"Thou  hast  thy  Maker  grievously  defied  ; 
Has  acted  graceless  folly  in  His  eyes, 

For  mercies  when  His  judgment  bade  Him  chide." 

Thou  need'st  no  service  at  my  humble  ban  1, 
Yet  gav'st  me  life  and  blessed  my  happy  birth; 

Thy  spirit  bade  my  budding  soul  expand 
To  blossom  on  Thy  fair  and  wondrous  earth. 

And  Thou  hast  reared  me  with  a  father's  care, 

Strengthen'd  my  limbs  and  nursed  the  tender  child  ; 

Lull'd  on  my  mother's  gentle  bosom,  where 
Thine  all-protecting  wing  and  blessing  smiled. 

And  when  I  grew  and  all  erect  could  stand, 
Thou  did'st  enfold  me  in  Thy  fostering  arms 

Guiding  my  tott'ring  steps  with  Thy  right  hand 
To  manly  strength  which  scorneth  all  alarms. 

The  ways  of  wisdom  did'st  Thou  then  command 
To  shield  my  heart  'gainst  sorrow  and  distress, 

Conceal'd  within  the  shadow  of  Thy  hand, 
When  fear  and  wrath  did  all  the  land  oppress. 

How  many  an  unseen  danger  have  I  pass'd ! 

Before  the  wound  the  balm  is  yet  prepared ; 
A  remedy  before  the  spear  is  cast. 

The  foeman  vanquished  ere  the  war's  declared. 

When  plenty  reign'd,  my  share  of  wealth  I  won, 
But  when  I  roused  wtih  provocation  sore 

Thy  wrath,  as  doth  a  father  to  his  son. 

Thou  did'st  chastise,  that  I  should  sin  no  more. 

I  am  unworthy  of  the  saving  love 

Thou  hast  to  me  Thy  servant  ever  shown. 

So  must  I  waft  my  song  of  praise  above. 
And  unto  Thee  my  gratitude  make  known. 

My  soul,  Thy  gift  divine,  was  pure  as  light ; 

Alas !  no  more,  my  sin  hath  stain'd  its  crest. 
I  wrestled  with  the  Yezer-Ra*  in  might, 

But  all  too  weak  I  sank — yet  not  to  rest. 

*  Evil  inclination. 


50  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

Contrite  Thy  saving  pardon  I  entreat, 
I  feel  Thy  glory  flood  my  yearning  soul ; 

Vanqiiish'd  proud  sin  is  helpless  at  my  feet, 
And  I,  Thy  servant,  reach  Thy  radiant  goal. 

Translated  by  Elsie  Davis. 

Ibn  Gabirol  as 
Philosopher  and  Moralist. 

Later  the  poet  ripened  into  the  philosopher.  His  pro- 
found mind  wrestled  with  the  deepest  problems  in  life — 
God,  the  soul  and  immortality. 

His  philosophy  has  been  likened  to  that  of  Philo. 
(T.  Y.  chap,  xvii.)  First,  because  both  belonged  to  the 
Neo-Platonic  school  (see  notes)  ;  second,  both  linked 
Greek  and  Oriental  philosophy ;  and,  third,  both  exer- 
cised a  great  influence  on  Christian  thought. 

There  is,  however,  an  important  point  of  divergence. 
Philo  adapted  his  philosophy  to  the  theology  of  Judaism 
— it  was,  therefore,  a  Jewish  philosophy.  Gabirol  evolved 
his  system  independent  of  its  relation  to  his  Faith  or  to 
theology  in  general. 

In  his  great  work,  "Source  of  Life,"  he  presented  all 
existence  in  three  principles : 

(a)  God;  (b)  the  zvorld,  composed  of  matter  and 
form;  (c)  tJic  zvill,  the  intermediary  between  spiritual 
God  and  the  material  world.  Everything  came  into  ex- 
istence as  emanation  from  God. 

Like  many  philosophers  before  and  after  him,  Gabirol 
declared,  we  cannot  know  any  attribute  of  God ;  we  can 
declare  only  that  He  exists. 

Now  to  consider  this  versatile  man  as  teacher  of 
of  morals.  Passing  by  his  early  attempt  of  a  compara- 
tive treatment  of  the  ethics  of  Jewish  (biblical)  and 
Arabic  moralists  and  a  later  compilation  of  maxims 
styled  "Choice  of  Pearls,"  we  turn  at  once  to  his  great 


IBN  GABIROL,   POET  AND  PHILOSOPHER  8l 

ethical  work,  his  "Improvement  of  the  Moral  Qualities." 
Following  the  same  principle  as  in  his  Fons  Vitae, 
"Source  of  Life,"  of  which  it  may  be  considered  supple- 
mentary, he  does  not  seek  to  present  the  ethics  of  Juda- 
ism, but  ethics  per  sc,  though  it  contains  copious  quota- 
tions from  the  Bible. 

The  outline  of  his  ethical  theory  is  as  follows: 
Man  is  the  highest  creation  in  the  visible  world,  being 
gifted  with  speech  and  reason.  Hence  the  use  of  that 
reason  to  acquire  knowledge  must  be  his  first  aim,  as  far 
as  his  finite  mind  can  reach.  Knowledge  of  himself 
must  be  his  chief  concern.  The  improvement  of  his  char- 
acter, following  'the  middle  path"  of  virtue — which  with 
the  gift  of  free-will  is  within  his  power — should  be  man's 
next  ideal.  Indeed  the  two  powers,  intellectual  and 
moral,  are  united,  for  the  more  he  throws  off  the  sensual 
and  the  unworthy,  the  higher  his  mental  vision  can  soar. 
So  he  advances  and  each  spiritual  and  intellectual  at- 
tainment brings  new  joy,  until  at  last,  having  divested 
himself  of  all  impurity,  he  attains  the  immortal  bliss  of 
God-like  nature.  It  was  the  belief  of  Gabirol  that  the 
soul  is  always  in  the  exalted  state  before  it  descends 
into  earthly  life. 

It  is  remarkable  how  the  greatest  thinkers  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  were  hampered  by  ignorance  of  natural  science. 
Gabirol  accepts  a  popular  concept  of  a  "world  soul." 
There  is  all  the  difference  between  our  teaching  today 
that  Nature  teems  with  life  and  that  Nature  is  itself 
alive.  Again,  we  find  him  believing  that  the  stars  de- 
termined the  quality  and  quantity  of  man's  talents !  For 
astrology  was  still  accepted  by  scholars  as  a  real  science. 
He  also  followed  an  accepted  notion  then  that  man  is  a 
little  world.  We  may  call  hirn  that,  too,  at  times,  but 
only  as  a  figure  of  speech.     Supposing  that  there  were 


82  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

but  "four  elements,"  he  is  led  to  make  them  correspond 
to  four  main  parts  of  the  body.  This  supposition  leads 
to  a  classifying  of  the  vices  and  virtues  in  groups  of  four. 
Elsewhere' he  classifies  them  under  the  five  senses. 

These  scientific  limitations  did  not  afifect  the  sound- 
ness of  his  moral  views.  He  is  keen  to  observe  how 
qualities  may  shade  off  into  defects — he  sees  that  pride 
may  become  arrogance,  modesty  diffidence,  that  love 
may  be  cruel,  anger  righteous  and  bravery  foolhardi- 
ness.  There  is  good  and  bad  joy.  His  cure  for  vice, 
"the  sickness  of  the  soul,"  as  he  styles  it,  is  heroic — 
renounce  temporal  pleasure  and  give  yourself  up  to  ex- 
alted contemplation. 

Little  is  left  to  be  said  of  the  rest  of  his  career.  After 
years  of  wandering,  he  died  in  Valencia,  about  1070. 
Legend  even  says  that  he  died  by  the  hand  of  an  Arabian 
rival.  His  early  orphanage,  his  aloofness  from  com- 
panionship, his  restless  wandering  from  city  to  city, 
may  be  the  unfortunate  reasons  why  so  little  is  known  of 
this  great  man  who  earned  the  title  of  the  Hebrew  Plato, 
who  brought  back  Greek  philosophy  to  Europe  from 
the  Orient,  where  one  of  its  most  illustrious  expounders 
had  also  been  a  Jew,  Philo,  a  thousand  years  before. 

Notes  and  References. 
N co-Plat onisyyi : 

This  was  the  last  attempt  to  bridge  the  dualism  be- 
tween subjective  and  objective — or,  let  us  say,  between 
God  and  the  world.  One  of  its  great  expounders  was 
Plotinus  of  Egypt. 

There  is  in  it  a  touch  of  mysticism  of  which  we  will 
speak  in  a  later  chapter — for  its  teachers  thought  to 
reach  the  truth  through  a  state  of  ecstasy  or  rapture 
and  God  by  intuition.  We  are  familiar  through  Philo 
with  the  theory  that  the  world  is  an  emanation  or  ef- 
fluence from  God,  but  we  shall  have  more  of  this  in 
treating  the  Kabala. 


IBN   GAHIROL,   POET   AND   PHILOSOPHER  83 

Scholasticism  : 

Scholasticism  was  an  attempt  to  combine  Christianity 
with  philosophy.  It  sought  to  reconcile  faith  and  knowl- 
edge. 

In  an  art'cle,  "Ethics  of  Solomon  Gabirol,"  by  Rosin, 
Jczvisli  Quarterly  Rcvictv,  vol.  iii,  will  be  found  some  of 
Gabirol's  maxims  and  a  few  of  the  anecdotes  with  which 
he  enlivened  his  ethics. 

"Source  of  Life." 

To  the  Jews,  Gabirol  is  known  for  his  poetry,  not  for 
his  philosophy.  It  is  for  that  reason  that  his  great  philo- 
sophic work,  M'kor  Chayini,  "Source  of  Life,"  treated  in 
the  manner  of  Plato's  Dialogues,  while  it  powerfully  in- 
fluenced the  theories  of  the  three  great  scholastics — Al- 
bertus  Magnus,  Thomas  Aquinas  and  Duns  Scotus  in  its 
Latin  translation  (Pons  Vita) — was  not  suspected  by 
them  of  being  a  Jewish  production  ;  for  the  name  Ibn 
Gabirol  in  process  of  translation  from  Arabic  to  Latin 
came  gradually  to  be  transformed  out  of  all  recognition  in 
the  form— Avicebrol. 

This  discovery  was  made  by  the  Jewish  scholar — Solo- 
mon Munk. 

Choice  of  Pearls. 

Published  with  translations  and  notes,  by  Rev.  B.  H. 
Ascher,  London,  1859. 

Poetry. 

Translations  will  be  found  in  Songs  of  a  Semite, 
Emma  Lazarus ;  Songs  of  Exile,  Nina  Davis,  Jew- 
ish Publication  Society ;  The  Jewish  Year,  Alice  Lu- 
cas, Macmillan  &  Co. ;  Jezvish  Quarterly  Reviezv,  vol.  viii. 

Ethics. 

Improvement  of  the  Moral  Qualities,  trans.  S.  S. 
Wise,  Columbia  University  Press,  N.  Y. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

Influence  of  our  knowledge  of  nature  and  its  laws  on 
our  philosophy  of  life. 


84  HISIORY     OF     THE      MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

CHAPTER      X. 

BACHYA    AND    OTHER    MORALISTS. 

Now  we  are  going  to  tell  about  another  type  of  man 
who  flourished  during  the  Golden  Era  of  Spain,  Bachya 
Ibn  Pakudah.  We  will  call  him  a  moral  philosopher.  We 
have  said  that  little  was  known  of  the  personal  life  of 
Gabirol ;  still  less  is  there  to  tell  of  his  contemporary, 
Bachya.  We  gather  the  meagre  facts  that  he  flourished 
in  Saragossa  around  the  year  1040  and  that  he  was  one 
of  the  three  judges  appointed  by  the  synagogue  to  decide 
all  questions  for  the  community  on  Jewish  law.  They 
were  called  Dayanim.  Their  court  was  styled  Beth  Din 
(House  of  Law).  They  are  maintained  in  Jewish  com- 
munities to  this  day. 

A  Moral 
Philosopher. 

But  Bachya's  chief  concern  was  not  to  answer  ques- 
tions of  law  and  ritual,  but  those  of  moral  duty  and  life. 
His  character,  as  far  as  we  can  gather,  was  consistent 
with  the  great  task  he  set  himself  to  do — to  prepare  a 
system  of  ethics  for  his  people.  He  took  life  earnestly ; 
he  devoted  himself  to  study  as  a  sacred  duty — for  it  was 
his  feeling  that  every  door  of  learning  was  an  opening 
to  a  fuller  knowledge  of  God.  W^hile  some  ever  fear 
that  too  much  research  into  reals  of  wisdom  might  under- 
mine faith — for  him  knowledge  only  strengthened  its 
foundations.  For  his  piety  was  unspoiled  by  narrow- 
ness— let  us  say  he  was  too  religious  to  be  narrow.  He 
learnt  from  all  persons  and  from  all  things.  Naturally 
he  made  grammatical  and  scientific  study  subordinate  to 
moral  culture.  He  studied  not  for  intellectual  pleasure 
nor  for  the  power  that  knowledge  brings  nor  for  profit. 
He  sat  at  the  feet  of  the  sages  that  he  might  learn  the 


BACHYA  AND  OTHER   MORALISTS  85 

way  of  God  and  walk  in  it.  Here  was  the  true  union  of 
literature  and  life. 

His  piety  took  an  ascetic  turn.  He  regarded  self- 
denial  as  the  highest  human  ideal  and  believed  that  it  was 
well  that  a  few  at  least  should  lead  the  abstemious  life 
as  models  for  the  rest  of  mankind. 

On  the  whole,  Judaism  as  such  has  not  encouraged 
asceticism  though  leaving  a  place  for  it.  It  preaches 
sobriety  and  moderation  rather  than  rigid  abstinence. 
None  the  less,  asceticism,  when  gladly  undertaken,  is  a 
legitimate  expression  of  religious  life,  which  we  must  not 
ignore — for  our  varied  history  offers  many  examples  of 
the  voluntary  choice  of  the  abstinent  life,  from  the  Naz- 
arites  and  Essenes  of  antiquity  down  to  certain  groups 
of  mystics  nearer  our  own  time.  Rabbi  Meier  taught : 
"This  is  the  path  of  the  Torah :  A  morsel  of  salt  shalt 
thou  eat,  thou  shalt  drink  also  water  by  measure  and  shalt 
sleep  upon  the  ground  and  live  a  life  of  painfulness." 

"Duties  of 
the  Heart." 

Bachya's  magnum  opus,  great  work,  written  in  Arabic, 
but  best  known  in  its  Hebrew  translation,  is  called 
"Chavoth  Halevavoth"  (Duties  of  the  Heart.)  Philo- 
sophically, he  inclined  towards  the  Neo-Platonic  school 
like  Ibn  Gabirol.  But  while  Gabirol's  "Source  of  Life" 
was  rather  neglected  by  the  Jews,  Bachya's  "Duties"  was 
very  popular  and  exercised  a  profound  influence  over 
Israel.  It  has  not  only  been  translated  in  many  tongues 
and  expanded  in  many  commentaries,  but  special  abridge- 
ments were  compiled  for  private  devotion. 

This  work,  excepting  perhaps  that  of  his  contempor- 
ary, Gabirol,  was  really  the  first  system  of  Ethics  in 
Jewish  literature.  Pirke  Aboth  ("Ethics  of  the  Fathers," 
in  the  Mishna)  did  not  formulate  an  ethical  system  any 


86  HISTORY     OF     THE      MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

more  than  the  bibhcal  books  of  Proverbs  and  Ecclesiastes 
or  the  Apocryphal  books  of  "Wisdom  of  Solomon"  and 
"Ecclesiasticus."  All  of  these  contain  miscellaneous 
maxims  and  homilies. 

Indeed  Bachya  felt  "called"  to  write  this  book  in  an- 
swer to  a  sore  need.  He  noticed  that  the  rabbinical  law 
was  largely  concerned  with  ceremonial,  and  with  duties 
of  the  body,  or  at  best  with  external  measurements  of 
right  and  wrong.  He  would  lay  stress  on  the  internal 
motives  of  conduct.  With  such  we  may  class — the  tenth 
commandment:  the  phrase  of  Ps.  xv,  "Speaking  the 
truth  in  one's  heart :"  and  the  sincere  Pharisees — the 
highest  class  of  the  seven  indicated  in  the  Talmud — ■ 
"those  who  do  the  will  of  their  father  because  they  love 
Him." 

He  bases  Judaism  on  three  pillars — Reason,  Revela- 
tion and  Tradition.  Although  he  was  versed  in  philoso- 
phy, his  aim  was  not  to  evolve  a  philosophy  of  Judaism, 
to  appeal  to  the  intellect,  but  a  work  of  exhortation  to 
appeal  to  the  heart — human  duty  in  its  widest  application. 
He  demonstrated  earnestness  of  purpose  and  with  great 
power  of  expression. 

The  work  is  divided  into  ten  divisons  that  he  calls 
"gates,"  corresponding  to  ten  principles  on  which  he  based 
the  spiritual  life : 

First  Gate:  God.  The  unity  of  God.  God  is  to  be 
realized  first  through  the  mind  by  profound  thought, 
second  through  the  heart  by  love.  He  argues  from  the 
created  world  that  there  is  a  First  Cause,  and,  from  the 
harmony  of  the  universe,  to  that  Cause  being  one. 

Second  Gate:  Reflection.  It  is  man's  duty  to  ponder 
on  God  and  His  wisdom  as  displayed  in  the  wonders  of 
nature  and  man. 

Third  Gate  :  Worship  of  God,  Who  gives  without  ask- 
ing return  from  man. 


BACIIVA   AND  OTHER    MORALISTS  oj 

Fourth  Gate:  Trust  in  Divine  Providence.  This  gives 
true  content  in  this  Hfe  and  confidence  for  the  soul  in  the 
hfe  hereafter. 

Fifth  Gate:  The  Consecration  of  Work — in  unity  and 
sincerity  of  purpose. 

Sixth  Gate  :  Humility.  This  arises  from  contempla- 
tion of  divine  grandeur ;  it  teaches  patience  and  charita- 
bleness. 

Seventh  Gate  :  Repentance.  This  consists  of  the  rec- 
ognition of  sin,  confession,  the  resolution  of  reform,  and 
change  of  heart. 

Eighth  Gate :  Self -Examination.  This  section  dwells 
on  the  exalted  state  of  the  soul  that  acquires  spiritual 
knowledge  by  intuition. 

Ninth  Gate :  The  Ascetic  Life,  aloof  from  the  world. 
Sanctioned  by  the  biblical  institution  of  the  Nazarite,  he 
regarded  it  is  a  most  salutary  discipline  of  the  soul. 

Tenth  Gate:  Love  of  God.  Life's  aim.  The  soul's 
longing  for  its  Maker,  whose  service  is  contained  in  the 
Law,  is  not  a  burden  but  a  joy 

Here  are  some  extracts  from  the  "Duties" : 

Knowledge  of  the  Unseen. 

The  wisdom  of  the  Torah  is  divided  into  two  parts: 
First :  Wisdom  of  the  visible,  that  enables  us  to  know 
the  duties  of  the  body  and  its  members.  Second :  Duties 
of  the  heart  and.  mind  that  concern  thought  and  feeling 
and  whose  fulfilment  is  entirely  in  the  hidden  depths 
of  the  human  heart  and  soul.  .  .  .  These  form  the 
inexhaustible  sovirce  of  innumerable  virtues  and  obliga- 
tions. 

The  obligation  to  fulfil  the  duties  of  the  heart  and 
mind  is  greater  than  any  other,  for,  whether  they  refer 
to  the  commands  of  Reason  or  to  those  of  Scripture  or 
Tradition,  they  are  the  foundation  of  all  the  precepts  ; 
and  if  there  chance  to  be  even  the  slightest  failure  in  the 
ethics  of  the  soul,  there  can  be  no  proper  fulfilment  of 
any  external  ethical  duty. 


88  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

No  act  of  any  kind  is  done  completely  unless  the  soul 
delights  in  doing  it.  So  with  sinful  conduct,  it  is  not  the 
act  itself  but  the  sinful  intention  by  which  one  incurs 
guilt. 

Humility. 

The  truly  humble  man  will  mourn  for  all  the  mistakes 
made  by  other  men,  and  not  triumph  or  rejoice  over 
them. 

Among  the  aids  to  the  cultivation  of  humility  are  the 
contemplation  of  the  greatness  of  man's  obligation  to 
the  Creator.  .  .  .  and  on  the  insignificance  of  man  in 
comparison  with  even  this  earth ;  while  in  comparison 
with  the  greatness  of  the  Creator  the  whole  universe  is 
as  nothing. 

When  one  of  the  Chassidim  passed  a  dog's  carcass,  the 
disciples  said  "how  ofifensively  it  smells !"  The  teacher 
said  "how  white  are  its  teeth!"  If  it  be  wrong  to  speak 
disparagingly  of  a  dead  dog  how  much  more  so  of  a 
living  man  ;  and  if  it  be  merit  to  praise  a  dead  dog  for  the 
whiteness  of  its  teeth,  how  much  more  is  it  a  duty  tq 
find  out  and  praise  the  least  merit  in  an  intellectual  hu- 
man being. 

Humility  brings  content — for  a  humble  man  assigns  no 
special  rank  to  himself  and  is  satisfied  with  whatever 
comes  to  him. 

We  must  study  the  universe  so  as  to  understand  the 
wisdom  and  goodness  of  the  Creator,  but  we  must  study 
the  human  species — the  nearest  and  most  obvious  evi- 
dence of  divine  wisdom.  When  you  Ijave  studied  all 
that  can  be  known  of  the  universe  do  not  think  that  you 
know  all  about  the  wisdom  and  powers  of  God.  For 
here  he  has  only  manifested  just  so  much  as  is  necessary 
for  the  good  of  man. 

Faith. 

To  serve  God  we  must  trust  God.  There  should  be 
no  thought  or  intention  in  all  one  does  except  to  do  it 
for  the  sake  of  God  alone,  with  no  thought  of  human 
praise  or  the  fear  of  man,  or  of  advantage,  or  of  the 
removal  of  dangers  in  this  world  or  in  a  future  state, 


BACIIVA  AND  OTHER   MORALISTS  89 

Those  who  love  God  will  do  right  without  hope  of  re- 
ward, and  will  forsake  evil  without  fear  of  punishment. 
A  man  should  desire  to  be  kept  from  both  poverty  and 

riches. 

The  Torah  permits  our  swearing  by  the  name  of  the 
Creator  to  what  is  true,  but  I  counsel  you  n  >t  to  take 
an  oath  by  the  holy  name  of  God.  Say  simply  "yes" 
or  "no." 

A  Group 

of  Moralists. 

The  following  are  some  ethical  teachings  of  Jewish 
moralists  of  Spain  and  also  of  other  lands : 

R.  Eleazar  B.  Jehuda,  of  Worms.     (Fl.  1238.) 

From  Rokeach. 

Temptation. 

There  is  no  skill  or  cleverness  to  be  compared  to  that 

which  avoids  temptation;  there  is  no  force,  no  strength 

that  can  equal  piety. 

If  thou  hadst  lived  in  the  dread  days  of  martyrdom, 
and  the  peoples  had  fallen  on  thee  to  force  thee  to  apos- 
tatize from  thy  faith,  thou  wouldst  surely,  as  did  so 
many,  have  given  thy  life  in  its  defense.  Well,  then, 
fight^  now  the  fight  laid  on  thee  in  the  better  days,  the 
fight  with  evil  desire. 

From  the  Book  of  Pious  Souls. 
Begun  by  R.  Jehudah  b.  Samuel,  of  Regensburg. 
Business  Integrity. 
Be  not  disputatious  and  quarrelsome  with  people,  what- 
ever be  their  faith.     Be  honorable  in  thy  business  deal- 
ings ;  do  not  say  that  such  or  such  a  price  has  been  ofifered 
thee  for  thy  wares  when  the  thing  is  not  true. 

No  blessing  rests  on  the  money  of  people  who  clip 
coin,  make  a  practice  of  usury,  use  false  weights  and 
measures  and  are  in  general  not  honest  in  business. 

Many  things  are  permitted  by  the  law,  the  doing  of 
which  may  lay  upon  a  man  the  rendering  of  a  heavy  ac- 
count some  day  or  other. 
Thou  wouldst  do  better  to  live  on  charity  than  to  ab- 


90  IIISTOKV     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

scond  with  money  not  thine,  to  the  disgrace  of  the  Jew- 
ish faith  and  name. 

Duties  to  Non-Jews 

Mislead  no  one  through  thy  actions  designedly,  he  he 
Jew  or  non-Jew. 

If  a  contract  be  made  between  Jews  and  non-Jews, 
binding  to  mutual  observance  and  performance,  the  first 
must  fulfil  it  even  if  the  last  fail  to  perform  that  to 
which  they  are  bound. 

If  a  Jew  attempt  to  kill  a  non-Jew  and  the  latter  only 
wishes  to  defend  himself,  but  not  in  return  to  kill,  we  are 
bound  to  help  him  in  his  self-defense. 

In  thy  intercourse  with  non-Jews,  be  careful  to  be  as 
wholly  sincere  as  in  that  with  Jews  ;  needst  not  that  thou 
obtrude  on  him  who  is  no  Jew  argument  as  to  his  re- 
ligious errors. 

If  one  non-Jew  seek  counsel  of  thee,  tell  him  where  he 
will  find  a  true  man  and  not  one  who  is  a  deceiver,  in  the 
place  whither  he  repaireth. 

If  thou  seest  a  strange  man  of  another  faith  about  to 
commit  a  sin,  prevent  its  coming  to  pass  if  it  be  in  thy 
power,  and  herein  let  the  prophet  Jonah  be  thy  model. 

Faith  and  Kindness. 

If  anyone  ofifer  thee  an  amulet,  alleging  it  to  be  useful 
in  helping  to  favor  or  wealth,  carry  it  not,  but  place  thine 
undivided  confidence  in  God  alone. 

Let  man  in  his  solitary  hours  feel  the  same  repugnant 
shame  of  evil  in  the  sight  of  God,  as  he  would  be  com- 
n>it  wrong  in  the  sight  of  men. 

If  a  rich  man  and  a  poor  man  be  sick,  and  thou  seest 
all  the  world  going  to  see  the  rich  man,  go  thou  to  the 
poor  one,  even  though  he  be  ignorant  and  unlettered. 

Rather  be  intimate  and  work  with  an  uneducated  man 
of  generous  soul  than  a  learned  one  close-fisted. 

The  ancients  of  our  nation  composed  works  and  sent 
them  forth  without  their  names  ;  they  disclaimed  to  seek 
recompensing  delight  for  their  labor  in  this  lower  earthlv 
hfe. 

There  was  once  a  rich  man  who  would  build  a  beauti- 
ful synagogue  at  his  own  charge  alone  and  sufifered  not 


BACIIVA  AND  OTIIl'.R    .\[()RALISTS  9I 

the  congregation  to  contribute  to  his  pious  work,  because 
he  would  that  the  memorial  should  be  of  him  and  his 
posterity  alone.  But  ere  he  died  his  children  all  were 
dead. 

R.  Eleazar  B.  Samuel  Ha-Levi.    ' 
(b.  about  1250.) 

I  lay  on  my  children  my  injunction  or  advice  that  at 
morning,  immediately  after  prayer,  they  read  some  pas- 
sages in  the  Pentateuch  or  Psalms,  or  do  some  work  of 
mercy.  In  their  intercourse  with  others,  Jews  or  non- 
Jews^  let  them  be  conscientious  and  anxious  to  do  right, 
amiable  and  accommodating,  and  never  speak  when 
speech  is  superfluous  ;  so  will  they  be  guarded  against 
uttering  words  of  calumny  or  mockery  against  others. 

From  The  Book  of  Morals  (Fifteenth  Century). 

The  thread  on  which  the  different  good  qualities  of 
human  beings  are  strung,  as  pearls,  is — the  fear  of  God. 
When  the  fastenings  of  this  fear  are  unloosed,  the  pearls 
roll  in  all  directions  and  are  lost  one  by  one. 

A  habit  to  be  most  especially  inculcated  and  com- 
mended is  that  of  cleanliness. 

The  sweeter  self-love  makes  our  own  ignorance  to  us, 
the  more  bitter  do  we  become  towards  others,  the  less 
accessible  to  all  opportunity  of  reform. 

The  Courage  of  Humility. 

Let  a  man  be  never  ashamed  to  execute  the  com- 
mands of  religion,  even  though  he  be  mocked  therefor ; 
never  be  ashamed  to  confess  the  truth,  to  set  another 
man  right,  to  put  a  question  to  a  teacher  when  something 
is  not  well  understood.  But  let  a  man  be  well  on  his 
guard  against  putting  others  to  shame,  or  lay  bare  wan- 
tonly the  failings  of  a  neighbor. 

When  thou  seest  that  men  are  not  what  they  should 
be,  do  not  rejoice  over  the  fact,  but  grieve,  for  thou 
shouldst  pray  even  on  thy  enemy's  behalf  that  he  serve 
3od. 

Be  grateful  for,  not  blind  to,  the  many,  many  suffer- 
ings which  thou  art  spared ;  thou  art  no  better  than  those 
who  have  been  searched  out  and  racked  bv  them. 


92  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

Berachja  ha-Nakdan  (About  1260). 
(From  The  Book  of  Fables)   Spain. 

Miscellaneous  Maxims. 

Prefer  the  possession  of  one  thing  to  the  mere  ex- 
pectation of  two. 

A  small  certainty  is  better  than  a  large  peradventure. 

Be  a  servant  among  noble-minded  men,  rather  than 
a  chieftain  over  the  vulgar. 

If  thou  bearest  thyself  in  this  world  like  a  guest  re- 
ceiving its  hospitality,  men  will  try  to  find  for  thee  a 
place  of  honor  and  a  place  of  profit. 

The  proud  cedar  is  felled,  while  the  humble  shrub  is 
left  alone ;  fire  ascends  and  goes  out,  water  descends  and 
is  not  lost. 

Prefer  freedom  and  content  to  all  luxury  at  the  prison 
of  a  stranger's  table. 

Notes  and  References. 

''Duties  of  the  Heart": 

The  translated  extracts  are  from  Edward  Collins, 
Orient  Press,  London. 

For  Bachya's  endorsement  of  monasticism,  see  Graetz' 
History  of  the  Jezvs  (translation),  vol.  iii,  chap.  ix. 

A  Group  of  Moralists: 

The  selections  in  this  chapter  are  from  Zunz's  Zur 
Geschiclite  und  Literatur.  Translated  for  the  American 
Jewish  Publication  Society,  N.  Y.,  1875. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

Bachya  said  knowledge  deepens  faith ;  others  that  it 
undermines  it. 


93 


'CHAPTER     XL 

JEHUDA   HALEVI. 

"Er  sung  fur  alle  Zeiten  und 
Gelegenheitcn,  und  zvurdc  bald  der 
Liebling  seines  Volkcs. — Zunz. 

Jehuda  Halevi  was  born  in  Toledo  in  Old  Castile,  in  the 
very  year,  1086,  in  which  it  was  conquered  by  the  Chris- 
tian King  Alfonso  VI  (p.  72).  So  both  Moor  and  Gentile 
were  among  his  early  associations. 

A  great  poet  of  the  Jews,  Halevi  deserves  to  be  known 
as  a  great  poet  of  mankind.  For,  although  he  laid  the 
best  product  of  his  genius  on  the  altar  of  Judaism's  ideals, 
his  interests  were  wide  and  his  themes  universal — char- 
acteristic of  the  Spanish  school.  Only  in  lands  of  op- 
pression was  the  Jew  thrown  back  upon  himself  and  his 
interests  narrowed  to  his  own  people.  Halevi's  education 
favored  broad  culture,  for  it  included,  as  well  as  Hebrew 
literature,  astronomy,  medicine  and  all  branches  of 
mathematics.  He  was  as  cheerful  as  Gabirol  was  morose, 
and  where  the  latter  made  foes,  the  winning  graciousness 
of  Halevi  brought  him  many  eminent  friends.  Yet 
eulogy  did  not  spoil  his  lovable  nature. 

Although  verse-making  formed  part  of  the  broad  and 
varied  education  of  the  Jewish  youth  of  Spain,  he  was 
not  a  poet  by  training,  but  by  the  necessity  of  his  nature. 
Every  occasion  in  the  lives  of  his  friends  was  the  op- 
portunity for  a  poem — epithalamia  [nuptial  songs],  on 
their  marriages  and  elegies  on  their  deaths.  At  the  same 
time  the  Jewish  community  sought  his  pen  to  commemo- 
rate religious  celebrations.  It  can  be  imagined  how  wel- 
come he  was  in  all  literary  Gircles.  He  sang  of  wine,  of 


94  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

love,  of  careless  youth.  His  wit  was  always  ready  to  en- 
liven a  gathering.  He  turned  riddles.  Here  is  one,  the 
answer  being  a  pair  of  scissors: 

"Happy  lovers  learn  our  law ; 
Be  joined  in  one  as  we. 
Aught  that  passes  through  we  saw, 
And  again  are  one,  you  see." 

Translated  by  Joseph  Jacobs. 

"What  is  it  that's  blind  with  an  eye  in  its  head. 
And  the  race  of  mankind  its  use  cannot  spare. 
Spends  all  its  life  in  clothing  the  dead, 
And  always  itself  is  naked  and  bare? 
A  needle. 

Translated  by  Joseph  Jacobs. 

He  painted  the  glories  of  nature  to  the  life — so  that 
his  readers  feel  the  scenes  he  depicts,  as  in  the  following : 

The  Earth  in  Spring. 

Then,  day  by  day  her  broidered  gown 

She   changes    for    fresh   wonder; 
A  rich  profusion  of  gay  robes 

She  scatters  all  around  her. 
From  day  to  day  her  flowers'  tints 

Change  quick,  like  eyes  that  brighten, 
Now  white,  like  pearl,  now  ruby-red. 

Now  emerald-green  they'll  lighten. 
She  turns  all  pale ;  from  time  to  time 

Red  blushes  quick  o'er  cover ; 
She's  like  a  fair,  fond  bride  that  pours 

Warm  kisses  on  her  lover. 
The  beauty  of  her  bursting  spring 

So  far  exceeds  my  telling, 
Methinks  sometimes  she  pales  the  stars 

That  have  in  heaven  their  dwelling. 

Translated  by  Edivard  G.  King. 


JEHUDA    IIALEVI  95 

He  sent  his  youthful  poems  to  Moses  Ihn  Ezra  (  p.  1 13) 
and  received  this  coniphmentary  response : 

"How  can  a  boy  so  young  in  years 
Bear  such  a  weight  of  wisdom  sage?" 

He  became  the  greatest  Jewish  poet  of  the  Middle 
Ages. 

The  Poetry 
of  Religion. 

His  was  the  poetry  that  was  akin  to  prophecy:  with 
him  the  poetic  inspiration  was  indeed  a  divine  afflatus. 
A  deeply  religious  man,  poetry  was  his  means  of  religious 
interpretation.  As  years  went  on  he  did  not  regard 
poetry  as  -an  art  for  capricious  gratification — but  a  con- 
secration. This  particularly  applied  to  the  Hebrew 
tongue  that  was  for  him  indeed  a  lingua  sacra  (sacred 
tongue).  So  while  he  wrote  both  in  Arabic  and  Span- 
ish, Hebrew  was  the  preferable  medium  of  his  muse. 
Through  it  he  gave  to  every  hope  of  Israel  the  poetic 
touch. 

Though  a  physician  by  profession,  this  deeply  religious 
nature  preceded  every  prescription  with  a  prayer.  This 
characteristic  rather  disproved  the  adage,  "Among  three 
physicians  will  be  found  two  sceptics."  Some  of  his 
verses  seem  to  breathe  that  yearning  for  God  that  we 
find  in  the  Psalms,  "As  the  heart  panteth  after  the  water- 
brook,  so  my  soul  yearneth  for  the  living  God." 

Some 

Prayer  Poems. 

O  God !  before  Thee  lies  my  whole  desire. 
Although  it  find  no  utterance  on  my  lips. 
Absent  from  Thee,  my  very  life  is  death, 
But  could  I  cleave  to  Thee,  then  death  were  life. 
What  share  have  I  in  time,  except  Thy  will? 


96  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

If  Thou  be  not  my  lot,  what  lot  have  I? 
Spoiled  of  all  merit,  robbed  and  naked  left, 
Thy  righteousness  alone  must  cover  me. 
Yet  why  should  I  tell  out  my  prayer  in  words? 

0  God,  before  Thee  lies  mine  whole  desire. 

Translated  by  Ediv.  G.  King. 

O  that  a  dream  might  hold  Him  [God]  in  its  bond, 
I   would  not  wake :  nay  sleep  should  ne'er  depart. 
Would  I  might  see  His  face  within  my  heart 

Mine  eyes  would  never  yearn  to  look  beyond. 

Translated  by  Nina  Davis. 

Halevi  then  was  essentially  the  poet  of  the  Synagogue. 
Some  three  hundred  of  his  poems  are  found  in  the  prayer 
book. 

We  append  an  abstract  of  a  translation  by  Solomon 
Solis-Cohen  of  his 

Sabbath  Hymn. 

1  greet  my  love  with  wine  and  gladsome  lay, 
Welcome,  thrice  welcome,  joyous  Seventh  Day, 
Six  slaves  the  week  days  are ;  I  share 

With  them  a  round  of  toil  and  care. 

Yet  light  the  burdens  seem,  I  bear 

For  thy  sweet  sake,  Sabbath,  my  love. 
*  *  * 

The  fifth  day  joyful  tidings  bring. 
The  morrow  shall  my  freedom  bring 
At  dawn  a  slave,  at  eve  a  king. 

Zion. 

But  while  he  sang  of  many  themes,  he  had  at  heart 
one — Zion.  Zion  for  him  was,  indeed,  after  a  rabbinic 
saying,  "The  centre  of  the  earth."  Here  alone  was  God's 
message  completely  revealed.  For  the  land  of  Israel's 
past  greatness  and  future  hope  was  with  Jehuda  Halevi 
a  passion.     Israel  is  God's  people  and  Canaan  is  God's 


jEHtJbA    HALEVI  97 

land.     Zion  for  him  typified  the  Jew,  his  past  history 
and  his  ideals  for  the  future. 

Longing  for  Jerusalem. 

Oh,  city  of  the  world,  with  sacred  splendor  blest, 
My  spirit  yearns  to  thee  from  out  the  far-ofif  West, 
A  stream  of  love  wells  forth  when  I  recall  thy  day, 
Now  is  thy  temple  waste,  thy  glory  passed  away. 
Had  I  an  eagle's  wings,  straight  would  I  fly  to  thee. 
Moisten  thy  holy  dust  with  wet  cheeks  streaming  free. 
Oh,  how  Tlong'for  thee!  albeit  thy  king  has  gone. 
Albeit  where  balm  once  flowed,the  serpent  dwells  alone. 
Could  I  but  kiss  thy  dust,  so  would  I  fain  expire. 
As  sweet  as  honey  then,  my  passion,  my  desire ! 

Translated  by  Emma  La::arus. 

He  was,  then,  an  intense  Jewish  nationalist.  He  would 
have  hardly  understood  our  modern  school  that  treats 
Israel's  past  national  era  as  a  temporary  stage  for  the 
development  of  its  religion.  Still  less  could  he  accept 
its  conclusions  that  the  loss  of  Judsea  and  Israel's  dis- 
persion were  providential,  and  that  therefore  it  was  not 
necessary  to  fast  on  the  anniversary  of  its  overthrow  or 
pray  daily  for  its  restoration.  On  the  contrary,  he  voiced 
the  elegy  of  Jerusalem's  fall  as  his  personal  loss.  These 
dirges  have  been  incorporated  into  the  ritual  for  the  9th 
of  Ab.  Some  Jews,  of  his  day  and  ours,  may  have  re- 
cited the  daily  prayer  for  the  restoration  of  Israel  me- 
chanically; not  he.  Doubtless  the  wars  of  the  Crusades 
of  his  day  in  which  Christian  and  Moslem  fought  for  the 
sacred  capital  of  the  Jew,  but  raised  his  love  for  Zion  to 
the  burning  point. 

Halevi  the 
Philosopher. 

Yet  Halevi  touched  a  profounder  note  in  his  intellec- 
tual nature  when  he  gives  us  his  conception  of  Judaism, 


98  HISTORY     OF     THE      MEDIAEVAL      JEWS 

For  this  physician  and  poet  was  also  a  philosopher.  Both 
in  belief  and  practice  he  belonged  to  the  conservative 
school  as  distinct  from  the  rationalistic  (represented  in 
his  day  by  the  Karaites),  maintaining  the  legitimacy  of 
the  oral  tradition,  the  authority  of  rabbinic  law.  While 
well  read  in  the  Greek  philosophers — in  their  Arabic 
translation  probably — he  was  not  the  man  to  endeavor 
to  reconcile  Judaism  with  Plato  or  Aristotle,  He  based 
his  system  on  the  Bible  itself. 

Choosing  the  romantic  story  of  the  conversion  of  the 
Chazars  (chap,  iii)  he  presents  his  religious  vieWs  in 
that  setting.  Hence  this  work  is  called  the  Chozari, 
(usually  written  Cusari),  and  with  a  subtitle,  "Book  or 
Argument  and  Demonstration  in  Aid  of  the  Despised 
Faith."  The  cleverness  of  Jehuda's  plan  is  at  once  ap- 
parent :  for  when  the  Chazar  King  Bulan  called  upon 
representatives  of  different  religions  to  express  their 
views,  the  opportunity  was  offered  our  author  to  express 
his  opinion  on  each  religion  and  to  present  the  excellence 
of  Judaism  by  contrast.  This  plan  enabled  him,  too,  to 
unfold  his  philosophy  not  in  a  dry  treatise,  but  in  a 
lively  dialogue  recalling  Job  and  Plato. 

Of  course,  he  does  not  write  objectively  as  a  cold 
philosopher,  but  subjectively,  as  a  believing  Jew.  What 
it  loses  in  critical  acumen  it  gains  in  warmth.  We  feel 
his  heart  beating  and  to  demonstrate  religion,  that  is  bet- 
ter than  argument.  Now  for  a  brief  outline  of  the  five 
essays  into  which  the  book  is  divided.  The  representa- 
tive of  each  cult  presents  his  claim : — 

First,  the  philosopher  (of  the  school  of  Aristotle)  :  he 
makes  God  an  unreachable  abstraction  and  leaves  the 
king  cold  and  dissatisfied.  Next  the  Christian :  his  mys- 
tic doctrine  of  the  Trinity  appears  to  King  Bulan  to  be 
opposed  to   reason.     He  finds,   however,   the  third,   the 


JEHUDA    IIALEVI  99 

Moslem  doctrine  of  God,  more  logical,  but  the  divine  au- 
thority of  the  Koran  seems  unsupported  by  evidence. 
Now  as  both  the  Christian  and  the  Moslem  had  referred 
to  Judaism  as  their  respective  foundations,  his  confidence 
at  the  start  was  naturally  won  for  that  which  even  by 
its  rivals  was  acknowledged  second  to  their  own. 

When  the  Rabbi,  the  Jewish  representative,  comes  for- 
ward he  makes  no  statement  of  belief  in  God's  existence. 
Why?  Because  this  was  accepted  by  all  without  question. 
Next,  to  explain  our  knowledge  of  God  and  His  Law,  he 
expounded  the  doctrine  of  Revelation.  He  therefore 
turns  to  Scripture  where  God  is  made  known  to  the 
patriarchs  and  where  He  redeems  Israel  from  Egypt.  To 
Halevi  biblical  evidence  is  unanswerable  authority.  He 
therefore  wished  to  bring  foiward  the  unbroken  Jewish 
tradition  of  God's  revelation  to  Moses  and  the  prophets. 
With  this  hypothesis  he  demonstrates  that  divine  revela- 
tion as  found  in  Scripture  is  more  reliable  than  man's 
unaided  reason ;  hence,  the  message  of  the  prophet  is 
superior  to  that  of  the  philosopher  who  derives  his  idea 
of  God  from  unaided  reason.  Haleyi  maintained  that 
finite  reason  alone  cannot  always  discern  justice  in  the 
world,  not  seeing  the  whole  of  the  divine  purpose.  Hav- 
ing demonstrated  the  priority  of  the  Jewish  tradition  to 
that  of  the  Cross  and  the  Crescent,  he  next  proves  the 
superiority  of  the  Jewish  religion  by  the-  marvellous 
redemption  of  its  followers,  and  by  their  divine  choice 
from  among  all  people  for  the  reception  of  the  Law. 
All  associations  of  Israel  seem  exalted  to  this  passionate 
advocate.  The  land  of  Israel  is  superior  to  all  lands,  the 
language  of  Israel  (Hebrew)  is  superior  to  all  tongues 
and  the  people  of  Israel  superior  to  all  nations.  Hence 
his  oft-quoted  adage : 

"Israel  is  among  the  nations  as  the  heart  among  the 


100  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEMAEVAL     JEWS 

limbs."  If  modern  Israel  believed  as  deeply  in  the  exalted 
character  of  their  people,  that  conviction  alone  would 
spur  them  on  to  great  achievement. 

Appreciation  of 
Mosque  and  Church.' 

So  intensely  believing  in  his  own  religion — he  none 
the  less  speaks  appreciatively  of  others  as  the  following 
will  show : 

In  the  course  of  the  argument  the  question  is  asked  of 
the  Jew:  "If  yours  is  the  true  faith,  why  have  not  you 
attained  great  worldly  triumph,  such  as  have  been  reached 
by  the  Christian  and  the  Moslem,  instead  of  being  con- 
temptuously subjected  by  them?"  The  Jew  answers: 
"Just  as  the  seed  in  the  earth  seems  to  be  changed  into 
soil  and  water  out  of  all  recognition,  yet  has  really 
changed  the  earth  and  water  to  its  own  nature,  so  the  law 
of  Moses  changes  those  who  come  in  contact  with  it,  even 
though  it  seems  to  be  cast  aside  by  them.  Christianity 
and  Mohammedanism  are  preparations  for  Israel's  Mes- 
siah." 

The  King  and  his  people  are  now  converted  to  Juda- 
ism. But  making  the  rabbi  instructor  of  the  nation  gives 
Halevi  the  opportunity  to  enter  more  deeply  into  the 
exposition  of  his  Faith  in  the  remaining  books,  which 
are  briefly  outlined  in  the  notes  at  the  close  of  this 
chapter. 

On  the  whole,  it  is  the  man  behind  the  book  that  ap- 
peals to  us  rather  than  the  book  itself.  He  was  unique. 
For  example,  although  he  obeyed  every  ceremonial  com- 
mand, and  even  believed  that  they  were  needed  for  the 
perfection  of  the  moral  life,  none  the  less  he  imbibed  to 
the  full  the  broad  spirit  of  the  prophets.  Sometimes  we 
Speak  of  the  letter  versus  the  spirit  and  point  to  those 


JEIIUDA    IIALEVI  lOI 

who  obey  every  minute  precept,  but  lose  sight  of  the 
spirit  of  rehgion.  Jehuda  Halevi  was  one  of  those  rare 
natures  who  combined  in  himself  an  appreciation  of  the 
letter  and  the  spirit.  These  were  not  contradictories  to 
him.  Every  precept  of  the  Talmud  and  every  sacrificial 
law  claimed  his  reverence,  yet  his  soul  was  thrilled  by 
the  glorious  teachings  of  the  holy  prophets  and  by  their 
magnificent  appeals  to  righteousness. 

Pilgrimage 
to  the  East. 

This  faithful  lover  of  Zion  could  not  at  last  rest  until* 
he  himself  stood  upon  its  sacred  soil.  This  became  the 
settled  purpose  of  his  later  years — to  spend  the  close  of 
his  life  in  Palestine.  "To  die  in  Jerusalem"  was  and  is 
the  hope  of  many  a  Jew.  All  lands  to  him  were  strange, 
even  the  land  of  his  birth,  though  it  was  a  kindly  home. 
'T  am  in  the  West,  but  my  heart  is  in  the  East." 

At  no  time  could  it  be  less  propitious ;  for  since  the 
first  Crusade  (chap,  xiii),  the  Christians  had  possession 
of  the  Holy  Land  and  a  Jew  entered  this  home  of  his 
ancestors  at  the  peril  of  his  life. 

It  meant  leaving  a  tolerant  country,  parting  from 
friends,  pupils,  his  daughter  and  his  grandson.  His 
wife  was  dead.  Yes,  like  Abraham,  he  left  "land,  kin- 
dred and  father's  house  to  go  to  the  land  that  God  would 
show." 

So  the  famous  pilgrimage  began  about  the  year  1140. 
The  sea  voyage  to  Alexandria  with  accompanying  storm 
again  stirred  his  muse  and  brought  out  his  answering 
faith  :— 

Extract  from  Voyage  to  Jerusalem. 

A  watery  waste  the  sinful  world  has  grown, 
With  no  dry  spot  whereon  the  eye  can  rest. 


102  HISTORY    OF    THE    MEDIAEVAL    JEWS 

No  man,  no  beast,  no  bird  to  gaze  upon. 

Can  all  be  dead,  with  silent  sleep  possessed? 

Oh,  how  I  long  the  hills  and  vales  to  see, 

To  find  myself  on  barren  steppes  were  bliss. 

I  peer  about,  but  nothing  greeteth  me, 

Naught  save  the  ships,  the  clouds,  the  waves'  abyss, 

The  crocodile  which  rushes  from  the  deeps ; 

The  flood  foams  gray  ;  the  whirling  waters  reel, 

Now  like  its  prey  whereon  at  last  it  sweeps. 

The  ocean  swallows  up  the  vessel's  keel. 

The  billows  rage — exult,  oh  soul  of  mine, 

Soon  shalt  thou  enter  the  Lord's  sacred  shrine. 

Translated  by  Emma  Lazarus. 
A  Calm  Night  at  Sea. 

And  when  the  sun  retires  to  the  mansions  of  the  skies, 

Where  all  the  hosts  of  heaven  their  general  await. 

The  night  comes  on,  an  Ethiop  queen,  her  garment  all  of 
gold. 

Comes   here    deck'd   with   azure    and   there   with   pearls 
ornate. 

And  the  constellations  wander  through  the  centre  of  the 
sea 

Like  pilgrims  doomed  to  linger  far  from  all  that's  con- 
secrate ; 

Their  twinkling  forms  and  figures  their  likeness  repro- 
duce 

In  ocean's  mirror  and  images  of  flaming  fire  create. 

The  visage  of  the  ocean  and  of  the  heavens  mingle  here 

And  gather  sharp  and  bright  in  a  pattern  complicate. 

And  the  ocean  and  the  firmament  commingle  in  their  hue 

And  form  but  two  oceans  that  now  communicate. 

And  in  the  very  midst  of  them  my  heart  another  sea 
contains 

With  the  echoes  of  its  passion — the  billows  of  its  fate. 

Translated  by  Joseph  Jacobs. 

The  journey,  on  the  whole,  was  less  of  a  pilgrimage 
than  a  triumph.     For  in  all  the  great  cities,  from  Spain 


JEHUDA    IIALEVI  IO3 

to  Palestine,  Halevi  songs  were  sung  and  his  name 
honored.  In  this  friendly  environment  he  touched  his 
lyre  again  with  all  the  old  fire ;  thus  Egypt  was  the 
home  of  some  of  his  most  exquisite  productions. 

So,  his  journey  pleasingly  prolonged  by  flattering  at- 
tentions of  admiring  friends,  he  did  not  reach  the  Holy 
Land  till  the  seventh  month  after  his  starting. 

At  the  sight  of  Jerusalem — the  city  of  his  dreams — he 
gave  voice  to  his  greatest  poem  on  the  home  of  his 
fathers.  It  was  practically  his  swan  song.  We  quote  a 
selection  from  the  translation  of  Alice  Lucas : 

ZiONIDE. 

The  glory  of  the  Lord  will  ever  be 

My  sole  and  perfect  light ; 
No  need  hast  thou,  then,  to  illumine  thee, 

Oi  sun  by  day,  and  moon  and  stars  by  night. 
I  would  that,  where  God's  spirit  was  of  yore 

Poured  out  unto  thy  holy  ones,  I  might 
There  too  my  soul  outpour ! 
The  house  of  kings  and  throne  of  God  wert  thou, 

How  comes  it  then  that  now 
Slaves  fill  the  throne  where  sat  thy  kings  before? 

O !  who  will  lead  me  on 

To  seek  the  spots  where,  in  far  distant  years, 
The  angels  in  their  glory  dawned  upon 

Thy  messengers  and  seers? 
O !  who  will  give  me  wings 

That  I  may  fly  away, 
And  there,  at  rest  from  all  my  wanderings, 

The  ruins  of  my  heart  among  thy  ruins  lay? 
I'll  bend  my  face  unto  thy  soil,  and  hold 
Thy  stones  as  precious  gold. 

And  when  in  Hebron  I  have  stood  beside 
My  fathers'  tombs,  then  will  I  pass  in  turn 

Thv  plains  and  forests  wide. 

Until  I  stand  on  Gilead  and  discern 


I04  HISTORY    OF    THE    MEDIAEVAL    JEWS 

Mount  Hor  and  Mount  Abarim,  'neatli  whose  crest 
Thy  luminaries  twain,  thy  guides  and  beacons  rest. 

Thy  air  is  hfe  unto  my  soul,  thy  grains 

Of  dust  are  myrrh,  thy  streams  with  honey  flow ; 

Naked  and  barefoot,  to  thy  ruined  fanes 
How  gladly  would  I  go ; 

To  where  the  ark  was  treasured,  and  in  dim 

Recesses  dwelt  the  holy  cherubim. 

The  Lord  desires  thee  for  his  dwelling  place 

Eternally ;  and  blest 
Is  he  whom  God  has  chosen  for  the  grace 

Within  thy  courts  to  rest. 
Happy  is  he  that  watches,  drawing  near, 

Until  he  sees  thy  glorious  light  arise, 
And  over  whom  thy  dawn  breaks  full  and  clear 

Set  in  the  Orient  skies. 
But  happiest  he,  who,  with  exultant  eyes, 

The  bliss  of  thy  redeemed  ones  shall  behold, 

And  see  thy  youth  renewed  as  in  the  days  of  old. 

We  next  trace  him  to  Damascus.  We  have  only  tra- 
dition to  guide  us  as  to  his  further  steps.  It  is  said 
that  just  as  he  was  entering  Jerusalem,  an  Arab  slew 
him.  Thus  he  fell  at  the  very  gate  of  Zion  and  his  life 
went  out  in  a  glow  of  light,  a  willing  martyr  to  his  ideal. 
So  he  reaches  the  gate  of  Jerusalem  as  he  enters  the  gate 
of  Heaven.     Both  were  one  to  him. 

Notes  and  References. 

Halevi  and  Philo: 

The  philosophic  theory  of  the  Neo-Platonists  and  Philo 
was  that  the  perfect  absolute  God  could  not  have  directly 
created  the  imperfect  finite  world.  The  gap  between  the 
spiritual  God  and  the  material  world  was  bridged  by  an 
intermediary  emanation  or  Logos,  as  explained  in  our  last 
volume.  Halevi  criticises  this  and  says,  very  plausibly, 
even  this  Logos  must  be  ultimately  traced  back  to  the 


JEHUDA    IIALEVI  IO5 

First  Cause  (it  is  only  the  difference  between  direct  and 
indirect). 

Halcvi's  Poems: 

Zunz  divides  Halevi's  Divan  (book  or  collection)  into 
816  poems,  of  which  he  finds  300  in  the  Liturgy.  See 
Zunz's  summary,  LitcraturgcscJiichtc  dcr  Synagogalcn 
r'ocsic,  p.  203. 

English  translations  have  already  been  referred  to  in 
the  body  of  the  chapter. 

See  Heine's  tribute  in  "Romancero,"  of  which  here  are 
a  few  verses  translated  by  Zangwill : 


Ah !  he  was  the  greatest  poet, 
Torch  and  starlight  to  his  age, 
Beacon-light  unto  his  people ; 
Such  a  mighty  and  a  wondrous- 
Pillar  of  poetic  fire, 
Led  the  caravan  of  sorrow 
Of  his  people  Israel 
Through  the  desert  of  their  exile. 

Pure  and  truthful,  fair  and  blameless, 
Was  his  song,  and  thus  his  soul  was. 
When  the  Lord  that  soul  created, 
With  great  joy  His  work  beheld  He, 
And  he  kissed  that  soul  of  beauty. 
Of  His  kiss  the  fair,  faint  echo 
Thrills  through  each  song  of  Halevi, 
By  the  Lord's  grace  sanctified. 

Remaining  Books  of  the  Cusari: 

The  second  book  deals  with  the  attributes  of  God. 
He  defends  the  use  of  biblical  anthropomorphisms  (the 
speaking  of  God  in  a  human  way),  first  because  they  are 
only  used  figuratively ;  secondly,  they  are  helpful  in  ap- 
pealing to  the  imagination  and  the  emotions.  Finally  the 
most  abstract  qualities  can  only  be  ascribed  to  God  in  a 
metaphoric  way, 


I06  HISTORY    OF    THE     MEDIAEVAL    JEWS 

In  Book  III  he  defends  the  Oral  Law  and  Tahnud 
as  against  Karaism,  showing  his  substantial  agreement 
with  Saadyah.  He  also  endeavors  to  show  how  the  sym- 
bolism of  ceremonial  idealizes  the  daily  life  of  the  Jew. 

In  Book  IV  he  explains  the  names  applied  to  God  and 
the  essences  of  the  angels  and  contrasts  prophecy  with 
philosophy. 

In  his  last  book  he  wrestles  with  the  eternal  problem 
of  squaring  divine  omniscience  with  human  freedom  of 
will.  He  closes  with  a  criticism  of  the  Kalam,  i.  e., 
Moslem  rationalism.      (Note,  p.  44.) 

Rez'clation  versus  Reason: 

As  against  the  view  of  Halevi,  we  would  say  today 
that  we  may  trust  our  reason  and  treat  the  knowledge  it 
gives  as  a  kind  of  revelation  from  God. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

Bring  out  the  difference  between  Jehuda  Halevi's  love 
of  Zion  and  the  modern  movement  known  as  Zionism. 


107 


CHAPTER    XII. 
JEWISH  ACHIEVEMENTS  IN  CHRISTIAN  SPAIN. 

Political  and 
Social  Standing. 

If  the  Spanish  Jews  of  the  I2th  century  had  been  asked 
whether  they  preferred  hving  under  the  Crescent  or  the 
Cross,  they  might  have  found  it  difficult  to  answer.  So 
very  different  was  the  Spanish  Christian  from  his  co- 
rehgionist  elsewhere  at  this  time.  In  Castile,  Aragon, 
Navarre  and  Leon,  which  had  all  passed  from  Moorish 
to  Christian  sv/ay,  the  Jew  was  given  no  reason  to  regret 
the  change.  For  religious  liberty  and  civic  privileges 
were  continued  under  the  changed  regime. 

Forty  thousand  Jews  were  in  the  ranks  of  Alfonso 
VI's  army  at  the  battle  of  Zallaka  in  1085  (p.  'J2).  The 
engagement  was  even  delayed  on  their  account  till  the 
Sabbath  was  over.  Although  some  of  their  own  breth- 
ren were  in  the  Moorish  ranks,  on  neither  side  did  the 
Jews  permit  regard  for  coreligionists  to  affect  their 
patriotism.  This  recalls  the  loyalty  of  the  great  Samuel 
to  the  Persian  King  Shabur   (T.  Y .,  234). 

Toledo's  twelve  thousand  Jews  possessed  beautiful 
synagogues  and  some  of  their  sons  took  rank  as  knights. 
Castilian  Jews  won  more  renown  in  poetry  and  science 
than  in  Talmudic  law. 

Although  Alfonso  VII  showed  at  first  a  tendency  to 
curtail  the  rights  of  the  Jews,  he  soon  followed  his 
father's  more  liberal  example.  The  learned  Joseph  Ibn 
Ezra  was  high  in  his   favor  as  court  chamberlain  and 


io8  HISTORY    OF    THE    MEDIAEVAL    JEWS 

high  in  his  confidence  as  guardian  of  the  fortress  of 
Calatrava.  The  next  monarch  loaded  him  with  honors 
and  permitted  Toledo  to  become  a  place  of  refuge  for 
maltreated  Jews. 

Leon,  Castile  and  Navarre — all  in  turn — put  such  trust 
in  Jewish  loyalty  as  to  hand  over  to  them  the  guardian- 
ship of  fortresses  and  towns. 

Alfonso  VIII,  who  came  to  the  Castilian  throne  in 
Ii66,  met,  for  a  time,  a  rebuff  at  the  hands  of  the  vigor- 
ous Moorish  dynasty,  the  Almohades,  of  which  we  shall 
hear  more  later.  Yet  his  liberality  to  the  Jews  was  un- 
abated and  they  largely  furnished  the  funds  for  this  war. 
Their  Nasi,  Joseph  ben  Solomon,  became  his  treasurer. 
When  finally  his  triumphant  Christian  soldiers  turned 
their  arms  from  the  Moors  to  the  Jews  (a  movement 
quickly  quelled)  they  did  not  discern  here  a  warning  of 
darker  days  to  come.  For  when  the  thirteenth  century 
began  their  legal  status  was  more  assured  than  ever, 
safekuarded  by  royal  enactment.  Not  till  Leon  became 
incorporated  with  Castile  did  the  tide  in  their  favor  turn 
and  bigotry  begin  to  show  its  hand.  But  we  have  much 
to  tell  before  that  time  arrived. 

Benjamin 
the  Explorer. 

Let  us  first  turn  to  Navarre.  It  produced  the  famous 
Jewish  traveler,  Benjamin  of  Tudela,  who  traversed 
Europe,  Asia  and  Africa.  It  took  a  brave  man  to  face 
the  perils  of  travel  in  those  unsettled  days.  Although  a 
merchant,  it  was  not  with  the  material  aim  of  the  profit- 
able exchange  of  merchandise  that  he  penetrated  into 
unknown  lands,  but  with  the  pious  resolve  of  finding  "the 
lost  ten  tribes."  Their  whereabouts  had  always  been  a 
subject  of  serious  perplexity  both  to  Jews  and  Christians, 


JEWISH  ACHIEVEMENTS  IN  CHRISTIAN  SPAIN         IO9 

(There  came  a  time  when  a  theory  about  them  strangely 
affected  the  fate  of  Israel,  but  it  was  at  a  far  later  day.) 
Tudela's  Hebrew  notes  on  his  travels,  covering  the 
period  from  1160  to  11 73,  have  been  worked  up  into  a 
book  by  later  editors  and  translated  into  many  tongues. 
He  showed  himself  a  keen  observer  and  looked  out  upon 
the  world,  not  only  as  Jew,  but  as  man.  He  gives  us 
the  state  of  civilization  of  the  different  lands  he  entered 
and  describes  their  government.  He  tells  of  the  begin- 
ning of  trade  and  commerce  in  the  large  cities  as  far 
east  as  France  and  as  far  west  as  Persia.  He  tells  of  the 
deterioration  of  the  Greeks  with  their  armies  of  merce- 
naries and  of  the  steady  advance  of  the  Turks  into  Eu- 
rope. He  describes  the  republics  of  Italy,  the  Byzantine 
Empire  and  the  status  of  the  Caliphs  of  Bagdad. 

His  description  of  the  Jewish  communities  of  Europe 
and  Asia  are  valuable  contributions  to  our  history  in 
the  twelfth  century.  He  describes,  too,  the  Karaites  and 
the  Samaritans.  From  him  we  learn  of  the  exploits  of 
David  Alroy,  to  be  told  later  (chap,  xxviii). 

Dr.  Wilhelm  Bacher  says  of  him:  "Benjamin  of 
Tudela  furnishes  important  and  reliable  accounts  of  the 
civil  occupations  of  the  Jews.  .  .  .  Those  of  Pales- 
tine and  some  other  countries  extensively  practised  the 
art  of  dyeing.  The  large  Jewish  congregation  of  Thebes 
in  Greece  was  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  silk  and 
purple.  There  were  Jewish  glassmakers  in  Antioch  and 
Tyre  ;  in  the  last-named  town  also  ship  owners.  Among 
the  Druses  of  Lebanon,  Jewish  workmen  were  domiciled, 
and  in  Crissa,  at  the  foot  of  Parnassus,  a  large  colony  of 
Jewish  peasants  existed.  .  .  .  Benjamin's  book,  not 
altogether  free  from  fiction,  is  preponderatingly  marked 
by  sobriety  and  clearness  of  narrative." 


no  HISTORY    OF    THE    MEDIAEVAL    JEWS 

Chasdai  the 
Translator. 

Aragon  also  produced  Jewish  scholars,  particularly  in 
Barcelona.  From  that  tovyn  came  Abraham  Ibn  Chas- 
dai, who  lived  a  century  later  and  was  one  of  the  great 
translators   of    Arabic   works   into    Hebrew. 

His  knowledge  of  languages  enabled  him  to  adapt  a 
famous  story  known  as  "Barlaam  and  Josaphat"  that  was 
part  of  the  life  of  Buddha.  His  Hebrew  version  was 
known  as  "The  Prince  and  the  Dervish."  This  royal 
prince,  in  spite  of  his  jealous  seckision,  learns  of  the  ex- 
istence of  evil ;  so  renouncing  his  royal  privileges,  he  goes 
forth  into  the  world  and  leads  a  life  of  denial  and  sacri- 
fice. 

One  of  the  tales  told  to  the  Prince  by  the  Dervish  was 
of  an  island  country  that  annually  chose  for  its  king 
some  stranger  shipwrecked  on  its  coast.  At  the  end  of 
the  year  he  was  returned  to  the  same  spot  and  in  the 
same  condition  in  which  he  was  found.  One  more  pru- 
dent than  his  predecessors,  learning  of  his  ultimate  fate, 
laid  up  a  hidden  treasure  during  his  year  of  office,  on 
which  he  lived  in  happiness  after  his  brief  rule  was  over. 
This  one  year's  reign  is  earthly  life,  and  the  Dervish 
drew  from  the  picture  the  obvious  moral. 

But  much  is  written  in  a  lighter  vein.     For  example : 

Go  not  too  frequently  thy  friends  to  see, 
^     Lest  they  grow  weary  of  the  sight  of  thee; 
•   When  rain  is  scanty,  then  we  pray  fo'r  more, 
But  love  not  one  continuous  downpour. 

Let  not  his  humble  vesture  make  thee  blind 
To  one  whose  greatness  is  a  learned  mind : 
For  pearls  may  sometimes  in  the  sand  be  found, 
And  stores  of  gold  lie  buried  in  the  ground. 


JEWISH  ACHIEVEMRNTS  IN   CHRISTIAN   SPAIN  III 

Be  ever  meek  and  humble,  nor  essay 
In  path  of  pride  and  haughtiness  to  stray: 
The  tempest  spares  the  hyssop  on  the  wall, 
But  'neath  its  wrath  the  proudest  cedars  fall. 

Translated  by  J.  Chotzner. 

Ibn  Daud,  Scientist 
and  Historian. 

Toledo  {Castile)  is  to  be  lastingly  remembered  in  Jew- 
ish annals  for  producing  two  scholars — the  philosopher 
Ibn  Daud  and  the  critic  Ibn  Ezra. 

Of  Abraham  Ibn  Daud,  who  was  born  in  mo,  we  can 
say — what  has  become  in  this  narrative  almost  a  monoto- 
nous summary  of  Spanish-Jewish  scholars,  the  average 
photograph  of  them  all — i.  e.,  he  was  a  Hebraist,  a  mathe- 
matician, an  astronomer  and  a  physician.  But  he  won 
distinction  in  spheres  other  than  these — first  in  a  field 
hitherto  negelected  by  Jewish  scholars,  history.  The 
Jews,  who  had  made  so  much  history,  overlooke  I  its  sys- 
tematic study.  They  did  not  strongly  develop  the  his- 
toric sense. 

Ibn  Daud  does  give  us  a  Jewish  history,  Sepher  Haka- 
hala  (Book  of  Tradition),  that  is  particularly  valuable 
for  the  Spanish  era  and  for  the  earlier  period  of  the 
Geonim    (p.    37). 

But  philosophy  was  his  forte ;  he  deemed  it  the  sub- 
ject worthiest  to  occupy  the  human  mind,  leading  as  it 
does  to  a  knowledge  of  God.  Some  may  say  "that  de- 
pends upon  the  philosopher."  So  it  does.  But  Ibn 
Daud,  blessed  with  religious  faith,  took  the  same  ground 
as  Jehuda  Halevi  in  placing  Revelation  higher  than  Rea- 
son. Indeed  his  work  is  called  "Sublime  Faith."  Per- 
haps Ibn  Daud's  answer  to  those  who  taught  that  phil- 
osophy undermines  faith,  might  have  been  that  it  is  the 
little  knowledge  that  is  dangerous — to  faith  as  to  ever}-- 


112  KiSTORY    OF    THE    MEDIAEVAL    JEWS 

thing  else.  He  was  right  in  making  the  claim  that  what- 
ever might  be  the  attitude  of  other  creeds  towards  knowl- 
edge, Judaism  has  ever  courted  light. 

He  was  the  first  Jewish  follower  of  that  renowned 
Greek  philosopher,  Aristotle — the  world's  first  scientist. 

Ibn  Daud  reaches  God  as  the  necessary  First  Cause 
or  Prime  Mover  of  the  Universe.  As  such  he  must  be 
infinite  and  therefore  cannot  be  corporeal  (for  bodies 
have  limits).  The  First  Cause  must  be  wholly  inde- 
pendent, therefore  God  must  be  alone — One.  As  to 
God's  nature,  we  can  afiirm  no  more  than  His  existence, 
we  can  say  what  He  is  not  rather  than  what  He  is. 

Ibn  Baud's  explanation  of  life's  apparent  imperfection 
suggests  a  line  in  Pope's  "Essay  on  Man,"  "All  partial 
evil  is  universal  good." 

Just  as  the  Bible  makes  "the  beginning  of  wisdom  the 
fear  of  the  Lord,"  so  Ibn  Daud  treated  philosophy  with 
reverent  touch,  making  virtue  its  aim.  Opposed  to  Ibn 
Gabirol  in  other  respects,  he  agrees  with  him  here. 

In  subdividing  the  duties  taught  by  Judaism,  he  makes 
an  important  discrimination  between  an  ethical  and  a 
ceremonial  precept.  So  while  he  ranks  faith  in  God 
highest  and  morality  next,  he  places  sacrificial  and  dietary 
laws  lowest.  Yet  he  recognized  the  ethical  aim  of  cere- 
monial law,  but  not  with  the  insistence  and  enthusiasm 
of  Jehuda  Halevi.  Among  moral  teachings  he  lays  em- 
phasis on  duties  to  the  family  and  the  state  and  on  hu- 
mility, in  which  he  includes  forgiveness  of  enemies  and 
conscientiousness  in  general. 

Ibn  Daud  died  a  martyr — slain  in  an  anti-Jewish  riot 
in  1180.  He  deserves  to  be  classed  among  the  band 
of  immortals  whose  exalted  views  of  God,  Life  and  Des- 
tiny vindicate  the  dignity  of  man  and  give  inspiration  to 
noble  achievement. 


JEWISH  ACHIEVEMENTS  IN    Cllklii'tiAt?    SPAIN         II3 

Ibn  Ezra, 
the  Savant. 

Spain  produced  many  renowned  Ibn  Ezras — Moses  Ibn 
Ezra,  the  poet;  the  four  Ibn  Ezra  brothers,  who  flour- 
ished in  Granada;  Jehuda  Ibn  Ezra,  the  Nasi.  But  when 
we  mention  the  surname  alone  we  mean  Abraham  Ibn 
Ezra. 

He  was  born  in  Toledo  in  1092,  six  years  after  Jehuda 
Halevi,  and  absorbed  all  the  Jewish  culture  of  Spain.  He 
stood  out  keenly  intellectual,  even  in  this  intellectual  en- 
vironment— he  was  critical,  witty,  versatile  and  yet  pro- 
found. He  lacked  the  exalted  earnestness  of  Ibn  Daud 
and  the  religious  fervor  of  Jehuda  Halevi,  yet  his  in- 
fluence on  Jewish  literature  was  as  great  as  either. 

His  life  suggests  strange  contrasts.  He  wrote  poems 
but  lacked  the  poet's  temperament.  Though  a  rationalist, 
he  tolerated  no  deviation  from  authority  in  others.  He 
was  tinged  with  mysticism,  yet  he  ridiculed  the  mystics. 
An  astronomer,  he  half  believed  in  its  counterpart  and 
counterfeit,  astrology.  His  experience  was  pessimistic, 
but  his  belief  optimistic.  In  pointed  epigram  he  was  a 
master.     Was  not  his  own  life  the  best  epigram  of  all? 

His  genius  was  of  the  erratic  order.  He  turned  from 
one  study  to  another  and  his  life  reflected  his  change- 
ability of  interest.  He  gives  us  suggestive  notes  on  many 
themes  rather  than  exhaustive  treatises  on  few.  He  trav- 
eled from  land  to  land,  not  with  a  set  purpose  like  Benja- 
min of  Tudela,  but  simply  because  he  could  not  long 
content  himself  in  one  place.  Like  the  proverbial  "roll- 
ing stone,"  he  barely  gathered  the  means  of  subsistence. 
He  crossed  the  Mediterranean  into  Africa,  going  to 
Egypt  and  the  Holy  Land  and  reaching  as  far  as  Baby- 
lonia. Then  he  turned  from  the  East  to  Europe  once 
more,  and  in  Italy  exercised  the  greatest  influence  of  his 


114  HISTORY    OF    THE    MEDIAEVAL    JEWS 

life.  In  Rome  he  wrote  many  of  his  works  and  suc- 
ceeded in  creating  a  scholarly  revival  among  his  breth- 
ren. Indeed,  wherever  he  went  he  left  a  literary  im- 
pression. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  all  the  great  works  on  the 
science  of  Judaism  were  produced  in  ]\Iohammedan  lands 
and  therefore  in  the  Arabic  tongue.  While  travelling  in 
Christian  Europe,  where  Arabic  was  not  understood  by 
Jews  resident  there,  he  wrote  his  works  in  Hebrew,  so 
that  he  was  able  to  spread  Jewish  culture  among  them. 
(His  grammar  was  the  first  of  its  kind  in  Hebrew.) 
Thus,  through  his  roving  spirit  he  was  in  a  position  to 
render  his  greatest  service. 

From  Italy  he  went  to  England,  where  he  wrote  his 
"Sabbath  Epistle."  Returning  through  France,  he 
reached  Spain,  the  fatherland  he  loved,  only  in  time  to 
die.  Ibn  Daud,  who  survived  him,  calls  him  "the  last 
of  the  great  men  who  formed  the  pride  of  Spanish  Juda- 
ism" ;  but  greater  men  were  yet  to  follow. 

Ibn  Ezra 
as  Critic. 

In  all  his  diverse  capacities,  as  grammarian,  mathema- 
tician, philosopher,  on  each  of  which  he  left  renowned 
writings,  his  true  motif  was  the  role  of  critic.  His  com- 
mentary on  the  Scriptures,  particularly  of  the  Pentateuch, 
is  his  most  valuable  and  most  lasting  contribution  to  Jew- 
ish literature.  He  was  the  first — not  even  excluding  Saad- 
yah — to  treat  Scripture  exegesis  in  a  thoroughly  scientific 
spirit.  He  clarified  obscure  passages  by  critical  analy- 
sis instead  of  further  obscuring  them  by  fantastic  notions, 
according  to  the  prevailing  practice  among  both  Chris- 
tian and  Jewish  theologians.  He  uses  his  commentary 
as  a  medium  to  express  his  philosophic  views.    He  was  a 


JEWISH  ACiriEVEMKNTS  IN   CIIKISTIAN   SPAIN  II5 

subtle  thinker,  restricted  by  the  limited  scientific  knowl- 
edge of  his  time. 

Here  is  a  digest  of  some  of  his  opinions  on  the  (jnes- 
tions  which  most  concerned  thinkers  of  his  day  and 
throws  some  light  on  the  mediaeval  point  of  view. 

God  is  known  to  us  only  through  His  works.  He  is  in 
all  things.  At  one  time,  Ibn  Ezra  apj^roached  very  near 
to  pantheism  in  saying,  "God  is  all  things." 

Angels  are  immovable  beings,  who  none  the  less  carry 
out  the  will  of  God  even  as  light  can  cast  its  beams  to  a 
distance. 

The  stars.  Like  so  many  mediaeval  thinkers,  he  be- 
lieves that  the  stars  have  souls  and  influence  the  affairs 
of  earth,  hence  the  wide  vogue  of  astrology.  He  errone- 
ously supposes  that  they  are  of  dififerent  elements  than 
those  contained  in  the  earth.  The  heavenly  bodies  form 
a  "middle  world"  between  the  earth  and  "the  heaven  of 
heavens." 

Revelation  is  granted  first  through  nature,  second 
through  the  intuitions  of  the  heart,  and  thirdly  (revela- 
tion proper)   through  the  direct  communication  of  God. 

The  Bible.  Only  the  spirit  of  Scripture  is  divinely 
inspired,  not  its  actual  words — i.  e.,  its  sense,  not  its 
language.  This  was  daring  for  the  time.  He  does  not 
deny  miracles,  but  preferably  seeks  a  natural  explanation. 
Next  to  the  Pentateuch  in  his  appreciation,  came  the 
Psalms. 

He  is  in  accord  with  Ibn  Gabirol  in  saying  that  man's 
greatest  happiness  lies  in  fullest  knowledge  of  God  and 
also  in  his  belief  in  the  pre-existence  of  the  soul. 

He  sanely  objects  to  celibacy  while  condemning  sen- 
suality. (The  Catholic  Church  has  forbidden  its  priests 
to  rru-irr^  since  the  decree  of  Pope  Gregory  VH.) 


Il6  HISTORY    OF   THE    MEDIAEVAL    JEWS 

He  has  not  a  high  opinion  of  woman  and  certainly 
regards  her  as  inferior  to  man. 

He  discerns  in  the  lozver  animals  instinct  and  sen- 
sibiHty,  but  finds  mind  only  in  human  beings. 

Evil.  He  taught  that  nothing  in  creation  is  absolutely 
bad.  The  evil  that  we  find  results  from  man's  perverse 
choice — even  then  it  is  always  counterbalanced  by  good. 

Pravcr.  He  strongly  pleads  for  short  prayers  as  against 
long  ones  and  condemns  the  payyefanim  (writers  of 
Pixittim,  prayer-poems,  p.  28)  for  couching  them  in  ob- 
scure diction.  Prayer  for  him  must  be  both  brief  and 
simple. 

The  Future.  The  fate  of  the  wicked  after  death  is 
not  hell,  but  oblivion,  the  soul  unworthy  to  perpetuate 
itself.  The  future  life  of  the  good  is  wholly  spiritual 
and  exalted. 

Notes  and  References. 
Ibn  Ezra: 

The  following  is  a  characteristic  introduction  to  his 
commentary  on  the  Book  of  Ecclesiastes : 

"Hear  pleasant  words,  written  by  Abraham,  the  scribe, 
for  intelligent  readers. 

"He  is  called  the  son  of  Meir,  surnamed  Ben  Ezra,  and 
from  his  Rock  his  soul  seeketh  help  {Ezra — help). 

"To  illumine  him  in  darkness,  to  cause  his  way  to 
prosper,  for  hitherto  his  has  been  as  a  withered  leaf. 

"He  roved  far  away  from  his  native  land,  from  Spain, 
and  went  to  Rome  with  a  troubled  soul. 

"And  here  he  intendeth  to  expound  the  Scriptures,  and 
he  prayeth  to  the  Almighty,  in  whom  alone  is  his  hope. 

"To  increase  his  strength,  grant  him  wisdom  and  par- 
don any  of  his  shortcomings  in  the  commentary  on  Ec- 
clesiastes." 

Bib  lie  al  Criticism : 

As  Bible  critic  Ibn  Ezra  was  much  in  advance  of  his 
time,    In  his  day  and  long  afterwards  &11  accepted  the 


Jewish  achievements  in  christian  spain      1I7 

tradition  that  Moses  wrote  the  first  five  Bible  books.  Ibn 
Ezra  points  out  phrases  that  must  have  been  written 
after  his  day.  He  discerns,  too,  that  all  the  sixty-six 
chapters  of  Isaiah  are  not  by  one  author — that  there  were 
two  Isaiahs.  But  he  conveys  all  this  information  in  very 
guarded  language. 

For  those  who  would  like  to  obtain  a  closer  insight 
into  Ibn  Ezra's  intellectual  make-up,  we  recommend 
"Ibn  Ezra  Literature,"  Dr.  M.  Friedlander,  particularly 
the  Essavs  on  Ibn  Ecra,  London,  Scribner  &  Co.,  from 
which  these  summaries  have  been  made. 

For  a  complete  list  of  his  works  and  translations  ex- 
tant, see  Jezvish  Encyclopedia,  vol.  vi. 

Some  of  his  poems  have  been  translated  by  Alice  Lucas 
— see  The  Jezvish  Year,  Macmillan. 

Plato  V.  Aristotle: 

As  Jewish  thought  centered  around  the  two  schools, 
of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  an  explanatory  word  of  con- 
trast is  here  added.  Plato  gives  us  an  idealistic,  Aris- 
totle a  realistic  view  of  things.  While  Plato  argued 
from  ideas  to  things — deduction,  Aristotle  argued  from 
known  things  and  phenomena  to  general  concepts — 
induction.  As  a  further  distinction,  the  philosophy  of 
Aristotle  had  a  more  universal  scope,  covering  all  knowl- 
edge. Finally,  Aristotle  appeals  to  our  reason,  he  was 
essentially  the  rationalist.  Plato  appeals  to  our  emotions, 
he  was  something  of  a  mystic. 

Ihn  Daud: 

More  will  be  said  of  Aristotle  when   Maimonides  is 
reached.    He  accepted  many  of  Ibn  Daud's  conclusions ; 
among  others,  that  prophecy  is  the  highest  stage  of  rea-' 
son.     Ibn  Ezra  shares  something  of  this  view  also. 

Jewish  Travelers 

When  Jews  of  the  Middle  Ages  traveled  voluntarily 
and  were  not  forced  into  exile,  their  motives  were  either 
material  (to  follow  the  route  of  trade  as  merchant)  or 
ideal,  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land  as  devo- 
tees.    Sometimes  the  student  traveled  to  other  lands  to 


Il8  HISTORY     OF    THE    MEDIAEVAL    JEWS 

sit  at  the  feet  of  a  scholar.  Only  a  few  wandered  then 
to  see  other  lands  and  other  people  ;  for  the  means  of 
safe  and  swift  transportation  is  man's  most  modern 
achievement. 

Indeed,  the  right  to  leave  one's  home  was  severely  re- 
stricted and  heavily  taxed.  Crossing  each  bridge  meant 
a  toll.  Furthermore,  no  Jew  could  go  abroad  without 
the  consent  of  the  congregation,  whose  burdens,  while  at 
home,  he  shared.  On  the  other  hand,  to  be  hospitable 
to  travelers  was  a  pious  act  especially  mentioned  in  the 
Prayer  Book. 

Medi?eval  travel  was  beset  with  diverse  dangers — 
shipwreck,  robbery,  or  seizure  of  one's  person  to  be  sold 
as  a  slave.  Rich  dress  excited  the  cupidity  of  those  one 
met  on  the  way.  For  obvious  reasons  the  Jew  found  it 
wise  to  keep  his  racial  identity  undisclosed.  Sometimes 
the  traveler  was  discouraged,  bringing  new  cares  on  the 
community  ;  at  times  welcomed,  bringing  wares  and  books 
and  accounts  of  other  Jewish  settlements.  The  traveler 
told  stories  of  strange  sights  and  bold  adventures  where 
truth  was  tinged  with  romance.  Some,  made  linguists 
by  their  travels,  were  enabled  to  translate  scientific  books. 
They  transported  famous  stories  from  land  to  land. 

The  best  known  Jewish  travelers  were  Berachya, 
Charisi,  Abraham  Ibn  Ezra,  Ibn  Chasdai  and  Benjamin 
of  Tudela. 

As  to  the  last,  there  is  marked  distinction  between  his 
reports  of  what  he  saw  and  what  he  heard.  For  example : 
He  saw  two  copper  pillars  in  Rome.  He  heard  that  they 
had  been  constructed  by  King  Solomon  and  that  they 
perspired  annually  on  the  9th  of  Ab. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

Someone  has  said  that  everyone  is  either  a  Platonist 
or  an  Aristotelian,  the  average  Jew  being  the  latter. 


119 


BOOK   III. 


IN    CHRISTIAN    EUROPE 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


Roman  Empire. 


Pope    Gregory    VH 

Hildebrand)    1073 

First  Crusade    1096 

Emperor   Conrad 

III    1138 

Second    Crusade ....  1146 
Emperor    Frederick 
Barbarossa    11S2 


Third   Crusade    ....1189 

Pope  Innocent  III  1198 
Emperor    Frederick 

II      1212 

Francis  d'Asssi,  fl.l200 
Fourth    L  a  t  e  r  a  n 

Council    1215 

Fourth   Crusade. ..  .1228 
Massacre    of    Albi- 
genses     1228 

Emperor       Rudolph 
of  Hapsburg   1273 


Scholastics: — 
Thomas    Aquinas, 

d 1274 

Albertus  Magnus, 

d 1280 


Jewish    Contempo- 
raries and  Events. 

Turks  Acquire  Syria 
and     Palestine.  ..  .1065 

Ibn    Ezra,    b 1092 

Crusade  Persecu- 
tion      1099 

Rashi,     d 1105 

Abraham  Ibn 
Daud    1110 

Maimonides,  b 1135 

R.    Tarn's    Synod... 1148 
Samuel  Ibn  Tibbon.llSO 

David    Kimchi 1160 

Benjamin  of  Tu- 
dela  begins  trav- 
els     1160 

PhMip    Augustus   of 
France        pillages 
and    exiles    Jews. 1182 
Sueskind,        Minne- 
singer,  about 1190 


Jewish    badge    1215 

Synod   of   Mayence.1223 
Jews    suffer    for 
Hugh's      Death, 
Blood  Accusation.  1255 


England. 


William     the     Con- 
queror      1066 

William  Rufus   1087 

Henry    I    1100 


Stephen    1135 

First    Blood    Accu- 
sation   (Ritual 

Murder)    1144 

Henry     II,     Planta- 
genet     1154 


Richard     Coeur     de 

Leon     1189 

York    Castle    Mas- 
sacre     1190 

John     1199 

Magna  Charta 1215 

Henry   III 1216 


Hugh  of  Lincoln 
slain  (second 
Blood  Accusation.  1255 


Meyer    of    Rothen-           pj„,..j  i  ^■>1^^ 

berg,     fl 1280    "ward  1 1272 

1 

Expulsion  of  Jews    from   England    ...1290 


120 


THE   MINNESINGER  SUESSKIND  VON   TRIMBERQ 


121 


BOOK  II.    IN  CHRISTIAN  EUROPE. 

CHAPTER     XIII. 

THE     CRUSADES 

As  we  turn  from  Spain  to  the  rest  of  Europe,  it  is 
like  coming  from  a  balmy  to  a  bleak  atmosphere.  Here 
the  Middle  Ages  are  the  Dark  Ages — ignorant,  super- 
stitious, bigoted,  savage. 

We  have  seen  the  Christian  armies  kept  busy  in  re- 
sisting the  "infidel" — checking  the  Mohammedan  ad- 
vance into  Europe.  Christianity  had  become  so  strongly 
entrenched  that  by  the  eleventh  century  it  was  able  to 
conduct  this  conflict  of  centuries  not  only  as  the  defensive 
but  as  the  offensive  foe. 

Pious 
Pilgrimages. 

It  was  regarded  a  duty  by  pious  Christians  to  make 
pilgrimages  to  the  tomb  of  their  Savior,  Jesus  of  Naza- 
reth, in  Jerusalem.  A  pilgrimage  was  a  natural  and 
popular  expression  of  religion,  and  is  found  among  all 
creeds.  Nor  were  the  Christian  pilgrims  who  came  to 
Jerusalem  interfered  with  by  the  liberal  Moslems,  who 
permitted  them  to  build  there  a  church  and  a  hospital. 
But  when  the  Seljuk  Turks,  barbarians  with  a  mere 
veneer  of  Mohammedanism,  in  1065  acquired  Syria,  in- 
cluding Palestine,  they  made  it  hard  for  the  pilgrims. 
Many  returned  with  burning  tales  of  woe  and  outrage — 
fomenting  the  fanaticisrn  of  the  masses  against  the 
Turks. 


122  HISTORY    OF    THE    MEDIAEVAL    JEWS 

The  First 
Crusade. 

The  culmination  came  in  1096,  when  Peter  the  Her- 
mit, with  the  sanction  of  Pope  Urban  II,  stirred  all 
Christendom  with  a  flaming  appeal  to  rescue  the  Savior's 
tomb  from  the  hand  of  the  infidel.  Like  fire  the  contagion 
spread  through  England,  France  and  Germany,  and 
armies  were  enrolled  to  march  to  Jerusalem  with  differ- 
ent colored  crosses  on  their  banners — hence  the  name 
given  these  holy  wars — Crusades  (crux — cross). 

The  summons  appealed  to  the  lawless  as  well  as  to 
the  pious,  since  the  Pope  offered  to  all  who  volunteered 
under  the  cross  absolution  from  their  sins  and  remission 
of  their  debts.  A  Latin  proverb  runs,  "Corritptio  optiini 
pessima"  —  "the  degeneration  of  the  best  becomes  the 
worst."  It  was,  alas,  exemplified  in  these  expeditions, 
which  roused  the  religious  enthusiasm  of  some,  but  also 
the  base  passions  of  others. 

Then,  too,  the  worthiest  causes  may  have  unworthy  ad- 
herents. Some  of  the  scum  of  Europe  enrolled  under  the 
crusade  banner  and  saw  in  it  only  an  opportunity  for 
plunder  and  rapine. 

So  it  is  a  very  "mixed  multitude"  that  in  the  year 
1096  we  see  moving  towards  Palestine  with  women  and 
even  children  among  their  number.  Many  h^d  but  an 
obscure  notion  either  of  the  purpose  or  the  destination. 
A  goose  was  carried  in  the  van,  as  advance  herald,  with 
the  delusion  that  it  would  lead  them  to  Palestine !  \\' hat 
wonder  that  this  first  contingent  should  meet  overwhelm- 
ing defeat!     A  sorry  few  returned. 

Peter  the  Hermit,  so  brave  of  words,  was  the  earliest 
cowardly  deserter. 

But  these  w^ere  followed  by  a  more  orderly,  organized 
campaign —  the  better  classes  gathered  from  the  feudal 


THE  CRUSADES  I  23 

estates  of  luirope — six  armies  of  about  a  hundred  thou- 
sand each. 

Jewish  Victims 
in  Germany. 

Well  might  the  Jews  tremble  with  foreboding  when 
they  saw  the  advancing  crusaders.  Had  not  Godfrey  of 
Bouillon,  one  of  the  generals,  declared  that  he  would 
avenge  the  blood  of  Jesus  on  the  Jews ! 

So,  with  Jerusalem  in  the  hazy  distance,  the  word  soon 
passed  through  this  French  and  German  rabble,  "Why 
seek  the  infidel  Turk  afar;  here  is  the  infidel  Jew  at 
hand?" 

It  was  at  the  Rhine  district  that  the  savage  army, 
having  tasted  blood,  let  loose  the  passions  of  bigotry, 
avarice  and  lust.  The  Jewish  quarters  were  surrounded. 
Houses  and  property  were  destroyed.  Maidens  threw 
themselves  in  the  Moselle  to  escape  worse  horrors.  The 
bishop  often  had  civil  jurisdiction,  a  kind  of  local  gov- 
ernor. So  the  Jews  appealed  to  the  bishop  of  Treves. 
He  refused  protection  unless  they  submitted  to  baptism. 
With  the  howling  mob  steadily  gaining  on  them,  some 
in  desperation  decided  to  recite  the  baptismal  formula. 
At  such  tragic  moments  of  life,  with  helpless  children 
clinging  at  their  feet,  it  is  hard  to  tell  which  way  duty 
points.  In  some  instances  the  women  were  more  heroic 
than  the  men,  their  courageous  conscientiousness  decid- 
ing for  martyrdom.  In  Speyer,  with  the  alternative  of 
baptism  or  death  before  them,  many  chose  death,  men 
and  women  both.  Here,  however,  the  humane  bishop, 
Johannsen,  regarding  this  hounded  people  not  as  outcast 
heretics,  but  as  suffering  humanity,  took  them  under 
his  protection  and  even  executed  some  of  the  marauders. 
In  Worms  nearly  the  whole  community  were  slain 
with  the  declaration  of  the  Shema  on  their  lips,  volun- 


124  'history  of  The  mediaeval  jews 

tarily  choosing  death  rather  than  renounce  Judaism.  The 
memory  of  the  eight  hundred  martyrs  was  annually  cher- 
ished by  the  Jews  who  later  settled  there. 

In  Mayence  the  archbishop  and  the  two  crusade  lead- 
ers, Counts  Enricho  and  Emmerich,  decoyed  thirteen 
hundred  persons  into  the  palace  and  slaughtered  them — 
the  wavering  bishop  yielding  and   sharing  the  plunder. 

In  Cologne  the  Jews  were  protected  in  the  homes  of 
the  kinder  burghers.  Here,  too,  the  bishop,  Hermann 
III,  following  the  noble  example  of  his  colleague  of 
Speyer,  went  so  far  as  to  convey  the  Jews  secretly  to 
hiding  places  outside  the  city.  Ultimately  the  mob  dis- 
covered them — so  all  perished  by  the  sword,  except  those 
left  to  die  by  exposure  to  the  elements. 

Pillage,  massacre  and  forced  conversion,  begun  at 
Metz,  went  merrily  on  in  Neuss,  Ratisbon,  Altenahr, 
Xanten,  Regensburg,  Magdeburg  and  also  throughout 
Bohemia.  In  the  Rhine  district  about  four  thousand  are 
said  to  have  lost  their  lives. 

In  the  following  year,  1097,  reason  returned  some- 
what. Many  were  indignant  at  the  atrocities.  The 
emperor,  Henry  IV,  in  spite  of  the  Pope's  protest,  per- 
mitted the  forced  converts  to  return  to  the  Jewish  fold, 
and  even  exacted  from  the  people  of  Mayence  an  oath 
that  they  would  not  illtreat  them.  Some  even  regarded 
the  news,  that  the  crusaders  had  perished  by  the  way,  as 
deserved  punishment. 

Jerusalem 
Taken. 

But  not  all  the  crusaders  perished.  Some  of  the 
armies  reached  Jerusalem  and  took  it  in  1099.  They 
celebrated  the  conquest  by  the  slaughter  of  Moham- 
medans and  the  burning  of  Jews.  Three  Latin  kingdoms 
were  now  established  in  Palestine — at  Jerusalem,  Edessa 


THE  CRUSADES  12$ 

and  Antioch,  which  lasted  half  a  century.  At  Jeru- 
salem were  established  the  two  famous  religious  orders, 
the  Knights  Hospitalers  and  the  Knights  Templars. 

The  social  status  of  the  Jews  in  Christendom  was  now 
more  precarious  than  ever.  The  crusade  deepened  their 
sense  of  isolation  and  broadened  the  chasm  between 
them  and  a  hostile  world.  They  drew  the  cloak  of  their 
faith  still  more  closely  about  them  and  waited  with 
martyr  patience  for  "the  salvation  of  the  Lord."  They 
found  it  in  the  study  of  the  Law. 

With  what  strange  irony  they  must  have  regarded  this 
conflict  between  Christian  and  Moslem,  for  their  own 
ancestral  home — which  was  sacred  to  these  two  creeds 
only  through  the  sanctity  the  Jew  had  given  to  it !  To 
this  conflict  none  the  less  he  was  not  presumed  to  be- 
long, yet  he  became  its  greatest  sufferer. 

Second 
Crusade. 

It  was  about  fifty  years  later  that  the  second  crusade 
was  launched  (1146).  The  Jews  had  been  looking  for 
the  advent  of  the  Messiah.  The  Messiah  did  not  come; 
the  crusaders  did.  Remission  of  all  debts  to  Jews  was 
proposed  by  the  Pope  to  all  who  embarked  in  the  holy 
war.  If  only  they  had  been  deprived  of  their  property, 
well  might  they  have  chanted,  "Dayenu"  (we  are  con- 
tent). 

Losing  some  of  their  Eastern  conquests,  two  avenging 
armies  of  crusaders  were  mobilized  under  the  direction 
of  the  French  king  and  the  German  emperor,  with  over 
a  million  men.  Again  it  was  made  the  excuse  for  Jewish 
pillage.  Abbot  Peter  of  France  and  Monk  Rudolph  of 
Germany  preached  and  circulated  bitter  calumnies 
against  the  Jews  in  order  to  work  up  the  masses  into  a 
fanatic  temper. 


126  HISTORY    OF    THE     MEDIAEVAL    JEWS 

Bemhard  of 
Clairvaux. 

Had  not  the  Emperor  Conrad  III  shown  himself  more 
of  a  man  than  the  Eope,  it  would  have  gone  hard  with 
Jewry  of  Germany.  But  the  virtual  hero  of  this  crusade 
was  really  the  man  who  preached  it — Bernhard  of 
Clairvaux.  He  alone  was  able  to  draw  the  line  between 
veneration  of  the  tomb  of  the  Savior  and  hatred  of 
those  who  did  not  accept  him  as  Messiah.  This  distinc- 
tion he  tried  to  preach  to  the  masses. 

So  when  the  crusaders  began  their  pilgrimage  with 
the  slaughter  of  harmless  Jews,  the  righteous  indigna- 
tion of  this  greatest  soul  in  Christendom  was  aroused. 
His  voice  and  his  pen  were  at  their  service.  Rudolph 
he  stigmatized  as  an  outlaw  and  drove  him  from  the 
scene.  But  though  he  traveled  to  Germany  to  plead 
for  the  Jews,  he  failed  to  make  clear  the  moral  distinc- 
tion between  killing  Turks  and  killing  Jews.  Perhaps 
there  was  none.  But  the  Turks  held  the  coveted  soil 
and  had  legions  to  protect  it  and  themselves;  contest 
with  them  was  war — but  attack  on  the  Jews,  peaceable 
and  unarmed,  was  massacre. 

So  Jewish  slaughter  went  on  unabated  at  Wurtzberg 
in  spite  of  the  protest  of  its  bishop  and  of  Bernhard. 
Jews  were  expelled  from  Magdeburg  and  Halle.  In 
Carenton  (France)  they  made  a  fortress  of  a  house  and 
defended  themselves  to  the  last  man.  At  Rameru  the 
mob  attacked  the  congregation  while  worshiping  on 
the  Festival  of  Pentecost  and  almost  killed  the  famous 
Rabbi  Jacob  Tam.  Fortunately  a  knight  intervened 
and  saved  the  man,  whose  commentary  on  the  Talmud 
made  him  a  great  European  authority  and  who  was  one 
of  the  early  Tosa fists  (see  note). 

Though  the  good  Bernhard  stopped  all  further  slaugh- 


TIIK  CRUSADKS  127 

ter  in  France,  his  power  did  not  reach  as  far  as  l^.ohe- 
mia  to  stay  the  marauder's  hand. 

•For  Christendom,  the  second  crusade  ended  in  total 
failure,  owin<^f  partly  to  treachery  within  its  own  ranks. 
Only  a  small  remnant  of  its  vast  army  returned. 

Another 
Synod. 

Its  ravages  in  Jewry  strengthened  the  fraternal  bond. 
They  were  made  to  feel  that  "all  Israel  are  brethren," 
because  none  else  were  such  to  them.  At  the  call  of 
Rabenu  Tam,  there  assembled  another  synod  to  solve 
the  religious  and  civil  problems  growing  out  of  these 
troublous  times.  Organized  action  was  needed,  and  it 
was  vitally  important  that  all  Israel  should  present  a 
united  front,  when  treated  like  "the  Ishmaels  and  Hagars 
of  mankind"  with  nearly  "every  man's  hand  raised 
against  them." 

So  one  of  the  main  purposes  of  such  synods,  called 
from  time  to  time,  was  to  strengthen  the  Jewish  esprit 
dc  corps.  It  laid  great  insistence  on  the  duty  of  Jews 
settling  their  disputes  among  themselves.  The  threat 
of  excommunication  was  held  over  those  who  appealed, 
except  under  compulsion,  to  outside  secular  courts 
against  their  own  brethren.  Most  severe  were  their 
denunciations  against  "informers."  For  such  traitors 
wrought  incalculable  woe  to  their  much-harassed 
brethren. 

The  Remaining 
Crusades. 

We  will  briefly  summarize  the  remaining  crusades: 
The  third  Crusade  (1189)  had  the  most  romantic  in- 
terest  of   all    for   the    striking   characters,    Saladin,    the 
chivalric  Saracen,  and  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,  king  of 
England,    were    pitted    against    each    other — while    the 


128  HISTORY    OF    THE    MEDIAEVAL    JEWS 

famous  Frederick  Barbarossa  of  Germany  and  the 
infamous  Philip  Augustus  of  France  participated.  So 
its  setting  is  a  favorite  theme  for  the  novehst  from  Scott 
to  Lessing. 

As  to  its  results,  while  Jerusalem  remained  in  Mos- 
lem hands,  the  right  of  Christian  pilgrims  to  visit  it 
without  taxation  was  granted.  It  was  like  its  predecessors 
in  so  far  that  this  crusade  began  with  a  preliminary- 
massacre  of  Jews,  which  will  be  told  in  a  chapter  on 
England. 

From  this  time  on,  crusading  became  a  feature  of  the 
intriguing  policies  of  ambitious  popes — a  card  they  could 
always  play  to  rearrange  a  political  situation.  So  Pope 
Innocent  III  planned  another  in  1203.  It  was  successful 
and  Christendom  held  Eastern  sway  for  another  half  cen- 
tury, when  it  was  lost  again. 

In  a  fifth  Crusade,  Emperor  Frederick  II  of  Ger- 
many, in  1228,  once  more  won  back  Jerusalem. 

Losing  it  yet  again,  a  sixth  crusade  was  preached  by 
Gregory  IX.  Louis  IX  of  France  was  the  central  fig- 
ure of  this  crusade,  in  which  he  won  nothing  but  glory. 
To  the  Jews  it  meant  an  attack  upon  their  French  com- 
munities. On  a  few  baptism  was  forced,  but  the  majority 
were  trampled  to  death,  their  homes  looted  and  burnt. 
Some  three  thousand  coreligionists  lost  their  lives. 

Edward  I  of  England  was  successful  in  the  seventh 
and  last  Crusade.  But  before  the  close  of  the  thirteenth 
century  all  Palestine  drifted  back  into  Moslem  hands. 
In  Moslem  hands  it  remains  to-day.  The  Jews  had  been 
the  first  victims  of  this  movement,  and  they  were  the  last. 

Some 

Good  Results. 

Cruel  and  desolating  though  the  Crusades  were,  a  co- 
lossal   tragic    blunder,    yet    Providence,    "shaping    our 


THK  CRUSADES  1 29 

ends,"  ever  turneth  evil  into  good.  It  brought  many 
Christians  in  contact  with  Mohammedans  to  find  they 
were  not  monsters,  but  much  hke  themselves.  In  so  far 
its  influence  was  humanizing.  Still  in  its  dark  ages, 
Europe,  through  the  Crusades,  got  the  benefit  of  contact 
with  the  Orient's  higher  civilization.  This  meeting  of 
East  and  West  broadened  minds  and  fostered  commerce. 
Thus  even  the  Jews  to  whom  the  crusades  had  brought 
unmixed  evil  ultimately  enjoyed  the  salutary  benefits  of 
their  remoter  consequences.  They  lost  the  monopoly  of 
trade,  but  trade  in  turn  lost  its  stigma.  For  when  it  be- 
came legitimate  and  respectable,  the  Jews  had  to  en- 
counter new  restrictions.  Still  the  world  moved  on  to 
larger  light. 

Notes  and  References. 

Turn  to  the  map  of  Europe  in  front  of  the  book  for 
the  route  taken  by  the  crusaders. 

Read  "Bernhard  of  Clairvaux,"  article  by  Frederick 
Harrison,  in  Choice  of  Books. 

Nearly  two  million  lives  are  said  to  have  been  sacri- 
ficed in  the  crusades. 

Third  Crusade: 

Read  Lessing's  "Nathan  der  Weise"  and  Walter 
Scott's  "The  Talisman." 

Tosafist 

From  the  Hebrew  verb,  "to  add,"  was  applied  to 
those  rabbis  after  the  period  of  the  Geonim,  who 
derived  from  the  Talmud  additional  law  to  meet  the 
religious  needs  of  occidental  environment.  All  knotty 
questions  were  referred  to  them  and  they  revealed  great 
ingenuity  in  their  interpretations.  The  giving  of  authori- 
tative answers  {Responsa)  on  Jewish  practice  became  the 
main   function  of  later  mediaeval   rabbis. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

Pilgrimages  in  Judaism.  Passover,  Pentecost  and  Tab- 
ernacles are  called  "The  Three  Festivals  of  Pilgrimage." 


13® 


131 


CHAPTER     XIV. 


RASHI  AND  HIS  TIMES. 

Let  us  now  retrace  our  steps  from  the  days  of  the 
last  crusade  to  the  period  just  before  the  first.  Times 
were  quieter  then.  For  even  outside  the  Peninsula  there 
were  sheltered  spots  and  moments.  Let  us  look  into  the 
life  and  days  of  Rashi,  the  great  French  master. 

While  Spain  had  established  some  rabbinic  schools, 
which  had  produced  legalists  of  no  mean  repute,  still, 
in  the  specific  realm  of  Jewish  law,  she  never  attained 
greatness.  The  real  successors  of  the  Babylonian  schools 
of  Sora  and  Pumbeditha  were  France  and  Germany. 
It  was  France  that  gave  birth  to  one  of  the  greatest  of 
our  commentators. 

Rabbi  Shalomo  Yitzchaki,  better  known  by  his  ini- 
tials, Ra-sh-i,  was  born  in  Troyes,  capital  of  the  French 
Champagne,  in  1040,  a  dozen  ye.ars  after  the  death  of 
Rabenu  Gershom  and  just  about  the  time  when  the 
Babylonian  schools  were  closing. 

In  his  youth,  Troyes  ofifered  little  opportunity  for 
Hebrew  education,  and  to  obtain  it  he  had  to  travel  to 
Mayence  and  Worms.  Like  Hillel  and  Akiba,  of  old, 
he  found  that  privation  was  the  price  of  knowledge : 
occasionally  he  lacked  the  elemental  necessities — clothing 
and  food. 


132  HISTORY    OF    THE     MEDIAEVAL    JEWS 

Through  that  discipHne  has  passed  many  a  hero- 
scholar  since  his  day. 

Education  in 

France  and  Germany. 

What  did  he  learn  at  Mayence  and  elsewhere?  Not 
all  with  which  tradition  once  credited  him.  We  must 
bear  in  mind  the  times  and  the  surroundings.  Spain, 
the  sole  centre  of  European  culture,  was  the  only  land 
that  trained  its  sons  in  natural  science  or  philosophy  and 
made  physicians  of  its  rabbis.  The  Jews  of  Rashi's  day 
and  to  a  greater  degree  their  Christian  contemporaries, 
lacked  what  we  would  call  general  culture ;  they  had 
vague  notions  of  history  and  geography,  and  knew  not 
V  the  classic  tongues,  Greek  and  Latin.  Their  ideas  of 
religion  were  naive  and  not  entirely  free  from  supersti- 
tion. Many  believed  that  all  science  was  contained  within 
rabbinic  literature.  Be  it  not  forgotten  that  outside  the 
Peninsula  prevailed  the  Dark  Ages. 

But  within  the  limitations  of  his  environment  Rashi 
was  a  great  scholar.  He  read  practically  all  that  was 
extant  on  the  subject  of  Jewish  law  except  what  lay 
hidden  from  him  in  the  Arabic  tongue. 

He  returned  to  Troyes  master  of  all  rabbinic  literature. 
When  fitness  placed  him  as  the  spiritual  head  of  this 
community,  he  would  not  use  the  law  as  "a  spade  to 
dig  with."  He  followed  the  time-honored  precedent  of 
making  teaching  a  labor  of  love.  Though,  like  Bachya 
(p.  84),  a  judge  (Dayan),  unofiicial  rabbi  and  "scribe," 
he  earned  his  living  as  a  distiller  of  wine.  His  mind  was 
rich,  but  his  fare  was  frugal.  Here  was  "plain  living 
and  high  thinking."  Rashi,  like  many  of  the  rabbis  of 
thQ  olden  time,  was  a  saint  indeed,  lacking  only  the  title, 


RASHI    AND    HIS   TIMES  133 

Rashi's  Commentary 
on  the  Talmud. 

A  genius  is  soon  discovered,  and  a  genius  in  Talmudic 
and  Biblical  exposition  Rashi  certainly  was.  In  the  "sea 
of  the  Talmud"  Rashi  looms  forth  as  the  great  clarifier, 
and  in  its  study  he  made  a  new  epoch.  He  gave  the  best 
years  of  his  life  in  writing  a  commentary  upon  it.  He 
began  with  a  revision  of  the  text  by  a  comparison  of 
the  different  manuscripts  extant,  for  errors  crept  into 
books  more  commonly  than  not,  in  ante-printing  days. 

Without  this  commentary  (which  since  the  year  1520 
has  always  been  printed  with  the  Babylonian  Talmud 
as  part  and  parcel  of  it)  it  would  almost  be  a  sealed 
book.  It  .supplanted  all  previous  expositions,  the  best 
of  which  Rashi   doubtless  absorbed. 

Rashi's  commentary  became,  from  his  day,  the  stand- 
ard interpretation  and  his  text  the  standard  text.  His 
commentary  is  chiefly  concerned  with  explaining  the 
language,  the  grammatical  forms  and  here  and  there  the 
general  thought.  He  further  introduced  additional  in- 
formation on  the  laws  contained  in  the  Talmud  and  on 
its  teachers.  In  his  style  Rashi  is  a  model  commentator ; 
though  thorough,  he  is  yet  simple  and  terse.  He  had 
the  gift  of  condensed  expression, 

Rashi's  Commentary 
on  the  Bible. 

While  his  commentary  on  the  Talmud  is  his  great 
achievement,  his  commentary  on  the  Bible  is  more  famous 
in  a  way.  There  is  more  of  himself  in  it.  His  exposition 
on  the  Talmud  was  for  the  students ;  that  on  the  Bible 
was  for  the  masses.  It  has  given  religious  stimulus  to 
whole  communities.  Rashi's  Pentateuch  particularly  be- 
came a  text-book  for  youth.    It  comprised  both  an  expo- 


134  HISTORY    OF    THE     MEDIAEVAL    JEWS 

sition  of  the  grammatical  construction  of  the  words  and 
an  explanation  of  the  text  as  he  understood  it.  It  is  true 
that  Spain  was  the  home  of  the  science  of  grammar, 
but  some  of  its  teachings  reached  France  even  in  Rashi's 
day.  Here  and  there  his  commentary  consists  of  the 
translation  of  difficult  and  doubtful  words  into  French, 
his  vernacular ;  showing  that  the  Jews  of  his  day  spoke 
the  language  of  the  country.  His  commentary  contains 
more  than  two  thousand  words  in  the  French  of  the 
time  of  the  crusades. 

His  interpretation  of  the  Bible  is,  on  the  whole,  ra- 
tional and  simple.  He  usually  sought  the  plain  meaning 
of  the  text,  p'shat,  as  it  is  called.  This  was  the  more 
remarkable  in  an  age  that  looked  for  mystic  interpre- 
tation rather  than  for  the  obvious  meaning.  (This  was 
even  truer  of  Christian  exegesis  of  that  day  than  of 
Jewish.)  Not  that  his  exposition  is  entirely  free  from 
the  fanciful  and  fantastic,  such  as  we  at  times  find  in 
the  Midrash.  There  is  much  of  this.  But  even  where 
his  reverence  for  tradition  led  him  to  introduce  some  of 
its  theories,  he  did  so  with  misgiving.  In  his  old  age  he 
seriously  considered  a  revision  of  his  commentary  on 
more  rational  lines.  As  it  is,  we  must  not  be  surprised 
to  find  references  to  the  "evil  eye"  and  to  see  post- 
biblical  history  and  Talmudic  law  strangely  interwoven 
in  the  stories  of  the  patriarchs. 

But  it  has  remained  the  most  popular  exposition  of 
the  Bible  in  spite  of  later  ones  showing  riper  learning. 
Ibn  Ezra's  never  superseded  it.  Commentaries  have  been 
\/ritten  on  his  commentary.  Christian  humanists  have 
translated  it  into  Latin.  Luther's  Bible  translation,  so 
largely  responsible  for  the  Reformation,  was  greatly  in- 
debted to  Rashi's  exposition.  (See  Modern  Jezvish  His- 
tory, p.  24.) 


135 


136  HISTORY    OF    THE    MEDIAEVAL    JEWS 

Rashi's  Method 
of  Interpretation. 

Let  it  be  understood  that  Rashi's  commentaries  are 
not  general  surveys  of  the  works  he  expounds,  but  spe- 
cific exposition  of  the  text.  He  comments  on  a  verse 
rather  than  on  a  chapter,  and  on  a  word  rather  than  on 
a  verse.  Broad  surveys  of  Scripture  and  Tahnud  were 
to  be  the  tasks  of  later  hands.  For  their  complete  un- 
derstanding we  need  both — the  general  and  the  minute 
exposition.  (See  note.)  Both  his  commentaries  are 
remarkable   for  conciseness.     He  never  wastes  a  word. 

This  microscopic  study  of  the  Bible  that  never  missed 
the  slightest  variation  of  its  word  forms,  made  the  Jews 
of  the  eleventh  century  the  most  complete  masters  of 
Scripture  of  their  day. 

The  Talmud  for  Rashi  carried  complete  religious  au- 
thority :  it  was  for  him  a  work  without  error  or  limita- 
tion. He  explains  the  text,  he  does  not  venture  to  criti- 
cize it.  Let  us  realize  that  for  that  age  the  Bible  and 
the  Talmud  included  the  whole  of  its  intellectual  as  well 
as  its  religious  life,  in  a  more  complete  sense  than  they 
do  to-day  in  this  era  of  many  books,  of  new  fields  of 
thought  and  discovery,  of  new  arts  and  sciences,  and  new 
interests  generally.  Nor  was  the  Talmud  studied  then 
as  many  study  it  to-day,  as  a  literature  or  to  obtain  the 
impression  of  the  civilization  and  atmosphere,  the  beliefs 
about  the  world  and  the  theories  of  life  of  the  age  in 
which  it  was  written.  It  was  studied  wholly  for  its 
explanation  of  civil  and  ritual  law. 

Rashi's 
Influence. 

Emerson  said  that  "when  a  man  does  better  work  than 
those  of  his  kind,  though  he  build  his  house  in  the  depths 
of  the  forest,  men  will  make  a  path  to  his  door." 


RASH!    AND    HIS    TIMES  137 

Rashi  made  Troyes  a  centre  whence  "went  forth  the 
Law."  Verily  an  academy  is  not  a  building  but  a  man. 
Soon  the  French  schools  came  to  surpass  those  of  the 
Rhine.  He  gave  an  impetus  to  Jewish  learning  and 
widened  the  circle  of  scholars. 

His  influence  was  partly  due  to  his  character.  He  was 
esteemed  for  his  learning,  but  he  was  loved  for  his  gen- 
tleness and  benevolence.  Nor  can  we  always  separate 
scholarship  from  character.  There  is  a  conscientiousness 
peculiar  to  the  scholar.  Rashi  possessed  it  in  high  de- 
gree. He  is  always  honest  with  his  readers  as  to  his 
sources  and  his  doubts.  So  we  are  prepared  for  the 
picture  given  us  of  his  students  hovering  around  him 
with  loving  awe.  He  used  his  influence  to  promote  peace 
and  good-will  in  Israel ;  a  Hillel  in  his  way.  We  see  him 
chivalrous  in  defense  of  maid  or  wife  against  faithless 
lover  or  harsh  husband. 

Rashi's  Rcspoiisa  form  a  not  unimportant  part  of  his 
writings  and  were  elaborated  into  separate  works  by  his 
disciples.  His  counsel  was  sought  for  at  a  distance  and 
his  word  carried  throughout  France  and  was  accepted 
as  law.  For  he  was  not  only  consulted  on  academic 
questions,  but  on  the  practical  religious  issues  of  life. 
Thus  his  correspondence  reveals  the  life  of  his  times. 

Jew^  and 
Gentile. 

He  is  broad  enough  to  discriminate  between  heathen 
and  Christian,  refusing  to  apply  Talmudic  law  touching 
the  former  against  the  latter.  He  realized  the  necessity 
of  Jews  trading  with  Christians  among  whom  they  now 
lived  interspersed. 

But  those  rough  times  hardly  encouraged  an  entente 
cordiale  though  his  Rcsponsa  suggest  an  approach  toward 


138  HISTORY    OF    THE    MEDIAEVAL    JEWS 

it.  Jew  and  Christian  looked  upon  one  another  with 
suspicious  hostility,  even  before  the  first  crusade.  But 
when  Peter  the  Hermit  had  carried  his  message  of  frenzy 
through  Europe — and  the  libertine,  the  adventurer  and 
the  robber  used  the  cloak  of  religion  to  sanction  spolia- 
tion, fanaticism  ran  riot ;  then  came  the  rupture.  The 
first  crusade  occurred  during  the  last  years  of  Rashi's 
life;  perhaps  it  hastened  his  death.  When  the  Emperor 
Henry  IV  permitted  those  Jews  converted  under  the 
crusader's  sword  to  return  to  their  faith,  some  of  the 
severer  brethren  would  not  receive  them.  Rashi  rebuked 
this  severity.  "Reject  them  not,"  nor  were  they  to  be 
reproached.  (Compare  similar  attitude  of  Rabenu  Ger- 
shom,  p.  55.)  He  even  approved  accepting  the  testi- 
mony of  those  who  had  become  apostates  under  duress. 

In  II 05  Rashi  passed  away.  The  legends  that  grew 
around  his  name  testify  to  the  reverence  with  which  he 
was  regarded.  Fables  do  not  cluster  about  the  memory 
of  commonplace  people.  His  fame  went  through  Europe 
and  reached  the  East.  A  bench  is  still  preserved  in 
Worms,  where  sat — so  says  tradition — the  illustrious 
scholar,  his  pupils  grouped  about  him,  many  of  whom 
were  members  of  his  own  family. 

Greatness  is  further  indicated  when  a  man's  influence 
persists  after  his  death.  Rashi  most  lived  after  he  had 
passed  away.  His  pupils  became  a  school  and  the  foun- 
ders of  schools.  He  shaped  the  character  of  Jews  and 
Judaism  in  France  and  Germany  for  many  centuries 
after  his  day. 

Notes  and  References. 

Rashi  and  the  Mishna: 

Just  as  Rashi's  commentary  absorbed  many  of  those  of 
previous  teachers,  so  it  will  be  recalled,  Jehuda  Ha-Nasi 


RASIll    AND    HIS    TIMES  1^9 

summarized  compilations  of  Jewish  Law  already  in  ex- 
istence (7".  v.,  p.  222).  This  procedure  adds  to  the 
value  of  both  works. 

Higher  Criticism: 

This  term,  often  misunderstood,  means  a  comprehen- 
sive survey  of  the  work  as  a  whole,  its  style,  age,  author- 
ship, and  comparative  treatment.  It  is  distinct  from 
"lower  criticism,"  which  is  a  scrutiny  of  the  text.  Rashi's 
comments  were  of  the  latter  class. 

Rashi's  Coniuioiiarics: 

In  the  Rashi  commentaries,  a  few  of  the  Talmudic 
treatises  and  a  few  of  the  Bible  books  are  not  from 
Rashi's  hand. 

For  some  actual  examples  of  Rashi's  commentaries, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  work  on  Rashi,  by 
Maurice  Liber  (J.  P.  S.  of  A.),  chaps,  vi  and  vii. 
This  book  as  a  whole  is  recommended  to  those  who 
would  like  to  know  more  of  the  subject.  See,  too,  in 
the  appendix,  Rashi's  genealogy. 

In  German,  Zunz's  article  is  famous:  "Solomon  b. 
Isaac  genannt  Rashi"  contained  in  Zcitschrift  fur  die 
Wisscnschaft  dcs  Jiiclciitliitiiis.    Erster  Band  pp.  277-385. 

Tliciiie  fur  Disciissioi: 

Compare  the  study  of  the  Talmud  as  literature  with 
its  study  as  a  code  of  Jewish  law. 


140 


CHAPTER     XV. 
FRANCE,  NORTH  AND  SOUTH:    A  CONTRAST. 

Origin  of  the 
French  Kingdom. 

Now  for  a  fuller  word  about  the  land  of  Rashi.  We 
saw  France  gradually  break  away  from  the  Prankish 
emperor  to  become  a  separate  kingdom  (similar  to  the 
process  known  as  "fission"  among  the  lowest  organisms, 
which  increase  by  each  subdividing  into  two).  The  new 
country  opened  with  the  royal  house  established  by  Hugh 
Capet  about  the  year  looo.  Not  that  the  early  kings  had 
much  power.  Some  of  the  nobles  and  some  of  the 
bishops  (as  we  saw  at  the  time  of  the  Crusades)  were 
almost  as  strong.  The  lack  of  a  powerful  central  gov- 
ernment made  life  and  property  insecure.  That  which 
made  life  hard  for  the  general  public  always  made  it 
harder  for  the  Jews.  The  caprice  of  a  noble  could  at 
once  deprive  them  of  fields,  vineyards  and  mines,  which 
we  find  them  acquiring  quite  early.  While  a  bigoted 
word  of  a  powerful  bishop  was  sufficient  to  turn  all  the 
superstitious  populace  against  them. 

Yet  there  were  wide  distinctions  of  social  and  political 
status.  The  France  of  Rashi's  days  and  for  three  cen- 
turies after  was  not  one  country.  Part  of  the  North 
belonged  to  England,  including  Normandy,  Bretagne, 
Anjou,  Touraine,  Maine,  Guienne,  Poitou  and  Gascony. 
The  rest  was  broken  up  into  baronies  of  which  the  French 
king  ruled  but  one,  though  nominal  lord  over  all.  Each 
had  a  separate  history  and  one  was  even  Spanish. 


FRANCE  NORTH  AND  SOUTH  :  A  CONTRAST  I4I 

Broadly  speaking,  we  note  a  marked  difference  between 
Northern  and  Southern  France.  The  North  was  narrow 
in  its  outlook  and  bigoted  in  its  religion.  The  South, 
more  particularly  Provence  or  Languedoc,  bordering  on 
the  Pyrenees,  evinced  broad  culture  and  religious  en- 
lightenment. 

Strange  and  yet  not  strange — the  Jews  of  North  and 
South  partook  of  their  same  respective  characteristics. 
Those  of  the  North,  like  those  of  Germany  on  which  they 
bordered,  limited  their  religious  and  intellectual  activity 
to  Talmudic  study  and  the  interpretation  of  its  law. 
Those  of  the  South  were  more  akin  to  the  Spanish  Pe- 
ninsula on  which  they  bordered  and  produced  linguists, 
critics  and  philosophers, 

Southern 
France. 

The  Christians  of  Provence,  styled  Provencals,  were 
quite  a  class  in  themselves.  On  the  one  hand,  they 
yielded  no  blind  submission  to  the  Catholic  Church  and 
declined  to  accept  the  authority  of  the  Pope.  So  they 
were  regarded  as  heretics,  and  came  to  be  known  from 
one  of  their  towns — Albi — as  Albigcnses.  But  the 
Church  bided  its  time.  We  are  then  not  surprised  that 
they  looked  kindly  on  their  Jewish  neighbors  and  ap- 
preciatively on  their  religion.  Some  Jews  were  en- 
trusted wth  police  and  judicial  powers. 

The  cultured  Provencal  Jews  of  the  twelfth  century 
naturally  turned  to  Spain  rather  than  to  Germany  for 
their  teachers.  They  were  a  model  community,  moral, 
hospitable,  benevolent  and  loyal.  Some  were  merchants, 
some  farmers,  and  fortune  smiled  upon  them  all.  What 
a  pity  that  such  a  community  or  their  estimable  Albi- 
gensian  neighbors  should  be  disturbed! 


142  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

The  chief  Jewish  centres  were  Narbonne,  Beziers, 
Montpeher,  Lunel,  Posquieres  and  Beaucaire.  We  can- 
not mention  all  their  distinguished  scholars,  but  must 
confine  ourselves  to  the  two  great  scholarly  families,  the 
Kimchis,  grammarians,  and  the  Tibbons,  translators. 

The 
Kimchis. 

Joseph  Kimchi,  who  flourished  in  the  twelfth  century 
in  Narbonne  was  largely  instrumental  in  bringing  Span- 
ish culture  to  the  Provence.  He  anticipated  Ibn  Ezra 
in  transplanting  Judaeo-Arabic  science  into  Christian 
Europe.  He  has  left  behind  him  a  Hebrew  grammar, 
some  commentaries  and  some  poems. 

But  the  great  Kimchi  was  his  son  David.  Through 
his  Bible  dictionary  and  his  grammar,  he  taught  Hebrew 
both  to  the  Jews  and  Christians  of  Europe.  It  is  true  he 
only  absorbed  the  results  of  the  pioneer  grammarians, 
Ibn  Janach  and  Ibn  Ezra,  as  he  himself  frankly  acknowl- 
edged. But  he  presented  their  results  in  so  popular  a 
form  and  in  so  systematic  a  classification  as  really  to 
supersede  them.  At  times  the  world  is  as  much  indebted 
to  the  popularizer  of  a  truth  as  to  its  originator.  As 
widely  read  also  and  prized  were  his  philosophic  and  ra- 
tonal  commentaries  on  Scripture.  These  were  rendered 
into  Latin  and  aided  Bible  translators  of  a  later  day. 

The 
Tibbons. 

Lunel  produced  the  Tibbons.  Judah  Ibn  Tibbon,  born 
1120,  was  a  physician  by  vocation  and  a  linguist  by  avo- 
cation. He  is  styled  "the  father  of  translators."  In 
addition  to  independent  works,  he  translated  from  Ara- 
bic   into    Hebrew    Saadyah's    "Faith    and    Knowledge," 


FRANCK   NOKTll    AND  SOUTH:   A  CONTRAST  I43 

Bachya's  "Duties  of  the  Heart,"  Gabirol's  "Ethics"  and 
"Necklace  of  Pearls,"  Jehuda  Halevi's  "Chosari,"  and 
Ibi  Janach's  Grammar  and  Dictionary.  All  these  works 
have  been  considered  in  preceding  chapters. 

His  son,  Samuel  Tibbon,  was  a  keener  scholar  than  his 
father.  He  wrote  learned  commentaries  on  Scripture. 
He  translated  Aristotle  (not  from  the  original  Greek 
but  from  the  Arabic  translation)  into  Hebrew.  His 
greatest  contribution  to  the  spread  of  Jewish  learning 
was  the  translation  into  Hebrew  of  Maimonides'  "Guide 
to  the  Perplexed."  Both  of  the  man  and  the  book  we 
have  yet  t">  tell. 

Through  these  translations  and  those  of  less  famous 
Tibbons,  important  works  became  familiar  to  Jew.'? 
throughout  the  world.  Most  of  them  are  known  to- 
day— not  by  their  Arabic  but  by  their  Hebrew  names. 

Still  the  Proven':e  produced  no  striking  and  original 
thinkers.  It  is  significant  that  the  founders  of  the  two 
families  that  made  it  famous — Kimchi  and  Tibbon — came 
from  Spain. 

Northern 
France. 

Northern  France  exhibits  a  contrast  both  in  literary 
culture  and  social  status.  Here  the  Jews  sulTered  during 
the  second  Crusade.  Still  outside  of  that  they  were 
fairly  secure  as  times  went.  Indeed  the  Crown  was 
kinder  than  the  Church  and  Louis  VII  refused  to  deny 
Christian  servants  to  Jews  in  spite  of  the  decree  of  the 
third  Lateran  Council  in  1179.  But  this  was  but  a 
brief  gleam  of  sunshine.  Storm  clouds  came  with  King 
Philip  Augustus. 

The  same  avaricious  spirit  that  urged  Philip  Augustus 
to  bring'  the  rich  lands  of  the  barons  more  directly  under 


144  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

his  sway  prompted  him  to  despoil  wealthy  Jews.  His 
pretext  for  this  spoliation  was  that  they  were  usurers 
and  slew  Christians  to  use  their  blood  for  the  manu- 
facture of  Passover  bread !  We  shall  see  this  slanderous 
charge  utilized  by  wicked  men  all  through  their  history. 
Because  the  Jews  demanded  the  execution  of  a  Chris- 
tian murderer  in  Bray-on-Seine,  Philip  Augustus  ordered 
a  hundred  of  them  burnt.  The  bulk  of  the  community 
committed  suicide  to  escape  a  worse  fate  at  the  hands 
of  the  fanatic  populace.  Ah,  'twas  a  dangerous  thing 
then  for  Jews  to  demand  justice. 

Jews  Robbed 
euid  Bemished. 

But  he  did  not  stop  there.  One  day  in  the  year  1180 
the  synagogue  service  was  rudely  interrupted  by  the  sac- 
rilegious entrance  of  his  minions  demanding  money.  The 
Jews  on  the  king's  immediate  territory  were  mulcted  for 
1300  silver  marks,  while  Christians  were  absolved  from 
debts  to  Jews  on  the  payment  of  one-fifth  the  amount 
to  the  king !  What  shameless  robbery  given  the  sanction 
of  royal  decree.  Next  he  seized  their  landed  property. 
Then  having  stripped  them  bare  this  French  Pharoah 
banished  them  from  his  dominions.  The  alternative  of 
baptism  was  offered  to  give  the  heartless  conduct  a  re- 
ligious tinge.  But  the  exiles  found  hospitable  refuge  in 
neighboring  baronies. 

Other 
Persecutions. 

Those  whom  king  and  people  spared  in  Northern 
France  were  pillaged  by  the  marauders  of  the  third  and 
fourth    Crusades. 

Yet  the  crafty  king  who  cared  more  for  lucre  than  for 
the  Cross  soon  invited  the  Jews  back,  having  discovered 


FRANCE  NORTH  AND  SOUTH  :  A  CONTRAST  I45 

them  to  be  a  source  of  revenue.  So  the  next  step  was 
instead  of  banishing  the  Jews,  to  forbid  them  to  leave — 
exile  was  exchanged-  for  captivity.  Galuth  is  the  Hebrew 
translation  of  both.  The  next  device  to  exploit  the  Jews 
was  to  encourage  them  to  lend  money  to  the  people  at 
usurious  rates  approved  by  the  monarch,  from  which 
king  and  barons  were  to  receive  a  large  percentage.  This 
enforced  calling,  while  it  enriched  the  nobility,  impov- 
erished the  people  and  deepened  their  hatred  of  the  Jews ; 
for  they  did  not  see  the  real  usurers  in  the  background. 
This  anomalous  position  between  the  upper  and  nether 
millstone  must  have  warped  their  character  while  making 
hazardous  their  lives.  Such  an  environment  was  of 
course  inimical  to  culture  or  scholarship.  Northern 
France  only  produced  Tosafists  (note,  p.  129),  of  whom 
we  may  mention  Rashi's  grandson  Isaac  and  Judah  Sir 
Leon  of  Paris.  Even  the  Talmud  was  expounded  nar- 
rowly. It  was  an  era  of  superstition  in  which  hostility 
without  deepened  the  mental  gloom  within. 

Note. 
Latin: 

As  an  added  reason  why  Jews  in  Christian  lands  were 
for  the  most  part  ignorant  of  scientific  training,  it  has 
been  pointed  out  by  Zunz  that  such  works  in  scientific 
and  general  culture  as  did  exist,  and  they  were  few,  were 
in  Latin.  This  was  the  language  of  the  priest  and  the 
Church.  Not  unnaturally  the  Jews  were  averse  to  its 
study. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

Some  famous  works  better  known  in  their  translation 
than  in  their  original  tongues. 


146  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 


CHAPTER     XVI. 
THE  ZENITH  OF  POPISH  POWER. 

Pope  and 
Emperor. 

^  We  must  say  further  a  word  about  the  Christian  world 
in  which  the  Jews  were  hving  in  sulTerance,  for,  to  un- 
derstand their  hfe  we  should  know  their  environment. 
The  complete  subjugation  of  all  the  nations  in  Christen- 
dom had  been  the  aim  of  the  early  popes  from  Leo  III, 
who  crowned  Charlemagne,  as  told  in  the  opening  chap- 
ter. It  now  came  near  realization  with  Gregory  VII 
(1073),  who  instituted  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  so  that 
as  unmarried,  they  should  have  no  interest  outside  of  the 
Church.  He  also  exempted  them  from  secular  author  ty, 
that  their  power  should  be  more  unrestrained,  and  he 
withdrew  Church  property  from  secular  control. 

This  determined  man  forced  the  Emperor  Henry  IV, 
who  had  angered  him,  to  come  to  him  in  Italy  as  a  sup- 
pliant. In  midwinter  the  humiliated  monarch  was  com- 
pelled to  remain  barefoot  and  otherwise  clothed  in  but 
the  haircloth  shirt  of  a  penitent,  outside  the  castle  gates 
of  Canossa,  before  the  tyrant  pontiff  would  consent  to 
remove  the  ban  of  excommunication.  This  was  in  1077. 
The  Crusades  brought  increased  prestige,  for  kings  as 
well  as  people  received  absolution  from  sin  from  the 
pope  as  representative  of  divinity  on  earth.  Likewise, 
the  monarchs  of  Christendom  were  presumed  to  receive 
their  lands  from  his  hands  (as  tributary  to  St.  Peter's 


THE  ZENITH    OF  POPISH    POWER  I47 

chair).  Further,  the  widely  scattered  mendicant  friars 
made  his  assumption  of  world  sway  almost  a  reality. 

It  was  impossible  that  emperor  and  pope  should  claim 
universal  control  (though  theoretically  in  different 
realms),  without  clash,  as  we  have  already  seen.  The 
climax  was  reached  in  the  conOict  hetwen  Frederick  I, 
Karbarossa  and  Pope  Hadrian  on  the  question  of  the 
control  of  Italy,  never  (juite  conceded  to  the  Emperors. 
The  pope  insisted  that  h^rederick  should  hold  the  stirrup 
while  he  mounted  his  horse — a  small  formality,  but  great 
in  the  subjection  it  implied.  The  pope  died  but  the  fight 
lived. 

Popish  power  reached  its  culmination  with  Innocent 
III.  Fle  introduced  Confession,  which  gave  to  local 
priests  dangerous  power  over  families  into  whose  privacy 
it  penetrated.  The  interdict,  placing  an  individual  or  a 
whole  people  under  the  ban,  was  the  whip  through  which 
Innocent  forced  kings  to  do  his  bidding.  It  was  more 
potent  than  armies,  for  the  superstitious  masses  fled  with 
horror  from  the  excommunicated — deemed  accursed,  and 
from  whose  polluted  person  all  religious  rites  were 
withheld.  Further,  the  pope's  representatives — "papal 
legates,"  as  they  were  called — could  in  his  name  dictate 
commands  and  prohibitions  on  whole  nations  in  defiance 
of  their  kings. 

The  Popes 
and  the  Jews. 

The  effect  of  this  power  on  the  condition  of  the  Jews 
was  obvious.  Flowever  friendly  a  monarch  might  be  to- 
wards them,  the  po])e  or  his  bishop  could  demand  a  re- 
verse treatment.  This  actually  hai)pened  in  nearly  every 
European  land.  We  have  seen  popes  absolving  debts  to 
Jewish  creditors.     On   what   theory  was   this   justified? 


148  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

Perhaps  on  the  ground  that  the  Jews  having  rejected 
Jesus  the  Savior  were  arch  heretics  deserving  no  rights, 
tolerated  at  all  only  by  the  benevolent  sufferance  of  the 
Christian.  Jews  might  have  protested  against  this  ec- 
clesiastical logic.  The  lamb  might  protest  to  the  hungry 
lion. 

The  pope  could,  like  the  emperor,  be  a  protector  of 
^he  Jews,  too.  Innocent  III  protected  them,  not  in  rights 
or  privileges,  but  only  against  mob  violence  and  forced 
conversion.  Beyond  that,  he  was  not  their  ally  but  their 
persecutor.  His  bitter  letters  to  Alfonso  of  Castile,  Pe- 
dro of  Aragon  and  the  Count  of  Nevers  (France),  re- 
veal his  fanatic  antagonism  to  "the  people  of  the  book." 

So  it  happened  that  even  in  Spanish  Christian  king- 
doms, where  Jews  had  been  treated  with  enlightened 
kindness  (See  chap,  xii),  the  pope  determined  to  insin- 
uate the  canker  of  antagonism.  Soon  it  began  to  work. 
In  1212  a  mob  attacked  the  Jews  of  Toledo.  Then  they 
were  made  to  suffer  by  Ferdinand  III  of  Leon  and  Cas- 
tile, the  "saint"  who  burnt  heretics  with  his  own  hand. 
Next  they  were  debased  through  priestly  urgency  by 
James  I  of  Aragon. 

Finally  Innocent  III  summoned  the  Fourth  Lateran 
Council,  known  as  "the  great  council"  because  of  the 
daring  demands  of  the  papacy,  and  because  of  its  far- 
reaching  consequences.  Its  decisions  brought  Christen- 
dom more  completely  under  popish  dominance  than  ever 
before.  Strange  historic  contrast — in  the  very  year  121 5, 
in  which  England  won  its  Magna  Charta  of  political  lib- 
erty, was  this  Council  called  to  issue  edicts  of  spiritual 
serfdom.  So  we  are  almost  prepared  to  learn  that  this 
great  charter  was  one  of  the  things  that  Innocent  III 
condemned. 

We  are  concerned  here  only  with  those  pf  its  seventy 


THE  ZENITH  OF  POPISH   POWER  149 

canons  that  dealt  with  the  Jews.  They  were  chiefly  con- 
firmatory of  earHer  anti-Jewish  restrictions,  giving  them 
renewed  and  more  decided  reinforcement.  They  were  all 
framed  with  the  view  of  keeping  the  Jew  in  an  inferior 
station,  on  the  theory  that  it  was  outrageous  that  "these 
accursed  of  God"  should  hold,  in  any  relation  of  life,  a 
position  of  superiority  over  "the  true  believer."  Hence 
provisions  such  as  the  following : 

"No  prince  dare  give  office  to  a  Jew"  (directly  aimed 
against  Spain  and  Provence).  "Jews  may  not  employ 
Christians  as  servants."  "They  must  pay  tithes  and  taxes 
to  the  Church."  "They  must  not  appear  in  the  public 
streets  during  Easter." 

The  Badge. 

But  the  climax  of  cruel  discrimination  was  reached  in 
a  new  imposition — a  distinctive  Jewish  dress.  To  Inno- 
cent III,  then,  do  we  owe  the  culmination  of  degrada- 
tion— the  yellow  badge.  Henceforth  for  six  centuries 
this  mark  of  infamy  singled  out  the  Jew  for  the  mockery, 
the  scorn  and  occasionally  the  violence  of  every  passerby. 
Spanish  Jewry  for  a  time  put  off  the  evil  day,  but  was 
eventually  forced  to  succumb. 

The  persistent  contempt  of  their  neighbors  that  this 
fostered  could  not  but  react  unfavorably  on  Jewish  char- 
acter. It  tended  to  break  their  spirit,  though  it  did  not 
shake  their  faith.  Surrounded  by  hostility  and  insult 
and  later  confined  to  the  slums  of  the  towns,  they  became 
indifferent  to  externals  in  dress,  manners  and  speech,  the 
pernicious  effect  of  which  has  almost  survived  to  this  day. 

Even  as  far  as  distant  Hungary  the  edict  was  carried. 
Here  the  Jews  had  settled  since  the  days  of  the  Chazars. 
Free  and  esteemed,  they  became  prosperous  farmers  of 
salt  mines,  they  were  given  the  right  of  coinage  and  many 


150  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

posts  of  honor.  No  longer  must  this  be  tolerated.  A 
later  pope,  Gregory  IX,  thundered  his  anti-Jewish  edict 
in  1232.  The  official  insignia  of  honor  was  now  ex- 
changed for  the  yellow  badge  of  shame. 

Massacre  of 
Albigenses. 

The  Church  was  not  much  kinder  to  its  own  children, 
who  dared  to  defy  its  decisions.  For  a  new  crusade  was 
now  preached  not  against  the  unbelieving  Turk  abroad, 
but  against  the  unbelieving  Christian  at  home.  Those 
liberal  Christians  of  Southern  France,  the  Albigenses,  had 
always  been  a  thorn  in  the  Church's  side  (p.  141).  This 
heresy  should  be  tolerated  no  longer.  The  "mission"  to 
eradicate  them  was  entrusted  to  the  monk  Arnold  of 
Citeaux  as  inspirer,  and  to  Count  Simon  de  Montfort  as 
executor.  So  the  dreadful  work,  that  only  the  most  wil- 
fully blind  could  call  religious,  was  begun.  In  1209  the 
city  of  Beziers  was  burnt  to  the  ground  and  the  inhab- 
itants put  to  the  sword.  As  it  was  not  always  pos- 
sible to  distinguish  orthodox  from  heretic,  the  heartless 
Arnold  commanded  his  minions  to  slay  them  all,  with 
the  words  "God  will  know  his  own."  Some  two  hundred 
Jews  living  in  their  midst  also  lost  their  lives.  So,  at 
the  same  time  this  quiet  and  learned  Jewish  community 
was  dispersed  and  their  books  consigned  to  the  flames. 
Bigotry  always   fears  scholarship. 

A  persistent  warfare  against  surviving  Albigenses  was 
steadily  continued,  until  they  were  shorn  of  all  power 
and  deprived  of  all  their  lands.  The  dominions  of  Ray- 
mond of  Toulouse  were  given  to  Simon  de  Montfort. 
De  Montfort's  wife  Alice  went  further  yet  in  her  fanatic 
zeal,  arrested  the  Jews  of  Toulouse  and  handed  over 
their  children  to  the  Church.     De  Montfort  restored  the 


tiif:  zenith  of  popish  power  151 

adults  to  liberty,  but  the  children  remained  in  the  ecclesi- 
astical clutches. 

It  was  in  1228  that  the  relentless  monks  completed 
their  war  of  extermination  against  their  own  coreligion- 
ists, the  Albigenses.  For  the  possession  of  a  Bible  trans- 
lated into  French  was  sufficient  proof  of  heresy  and 
meant  the  death  of  its  owner.  Thus  was  a  peaceful  and 
cultured  group  of  Christians  exterminated  from  Southern 
France.  With  their  passing,  there  disappeared,  too,  the 
Provencal  community  of  Jews  that  gave  so  much  promise 
of  a  golden  literary  era,  like  unto  Spain. 

This  whole  epoch  was  worthy  to  be  called  "A  Dark 
Age,"  not  because  men  were  ignorant,  but  because  inde- 
pendent thought  was  branded  as  sin. 

The  Monkish 
Orders. 

It  was  during  the  rule  of  Iimocent  III  (whom  John 
Draper  calls  "the  great  criminal")  that  the  Dominican 
and  Franciscan  orders  were  established.  They  were 
instituted  to  stem  the  tide  of  heresy,  which  almost  meant 
— to  check  the  spread  of  knowledge. 

They  were  called  the  mendicant  monks,  for  they  for- 
swore wealth  and  lived  by  begging  alms.  Poverty  as 
such  was  a  virtue  again,  as  in  the  days  of  the  Essenes 
(T.  Y.,  pp.  82,  197).  Dominic,  who  gave  his  name  to 
the  first  Order,  was  born  in  11 70,  built  up  a  complete 
organization-  with  friars,  nuns  and  tertiaries.  This  Do- 
minican order  grew  rapidly,  and  its  monasteries  were 
established  all  over  Christendom.  When  Raymond  de 
Penyaforte  became  Dominican  general  he-  made  persecu- 
tion of  heretics  its  chief  concern,  even  bidding  its  disci- 
ples study  Hebrew  and  Arabic  the  better  to  convert  Jews 


152  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

and  Mohammedans.  Under  such  impetus  anti-Jewish 
laws  were  now  enacted  thick  and  fast. 

Francis  d'Assisi,  founder  of  the  Franciscan  Order, 
who  flourished  about  the  year  1200,  was  one  of  the 
noble  men  of  history.  He  began  his  great  career  by  dis- 
tributing all  his  means  to  the  poor  until  bereft  of  every 
shred  of  possession.  But  the  Franciscans  soon  forgot  the 
three  principles  of  chastity,  poverty  and  obedience  in- 
stituted by  their  gentle  founder. 

Barefoot  friars  of  both  Orders  now  spread  over  Eu- 
rope, reverenced  by  the  people  with  superstitious  awe, 
and  so  exercising  over  them  a  perilous  influence  at  times. 
It  was  they  who  did  the  work  of  the  Church  that  the 
dissipated  clergy  neglected.  And  it  was  through  them 
that  the  claim  of  the  pope  to  universal  dominance  at- 
tained its  zenith.  Thus  it  came  about  that  "all  interests 
were  absorbed,  all  classes  governed  and  all  passions  col- 
ored by  religious  fervor,"  writes  Lecky.  The  political 
became  completely  subordinate  to  the  theological. 

We  shall  see  in  later  chapters  how  the  influence  of  the 
monastic  orders  was  nearly  always  against  the  Jews. 
Through  their  teaching,  as  much  as  any,  the  people  ac- 
quired that  mythical  concept  of  a  Jew  as  a  species  of 
monstrosity,  whose  blood  was  tainted.  They  helped  to 
spread  the  slander  of  "Ritual  Murder."  So  in  the  days 
when  might  meant  right,  the  Jews  learnt  what  it  cost  for 
a  minority  to  adhere  to  a  religion  not  accepted  by  their 
surroundings. 

Notes  and  References. 

Christian  Ascetics: 

A  good  picture  of  the  abnormal  extremes  to  which 
hermits,  ascetics  and  "saints"  were  carried  in  their  well- 
intentioned  fanaticism,  will  be  found  in  Lecky's  Intellec- 
tual  Development   of  Europe.     Some   even   regarded 


THE  zf<:nit[i  of  polish  power 


153 


washing  as  sin  and  sanctioned  dirt  and  the  diseases  it 
bred.  He  further  points  out  that  it  led  to  the  abandon- 
ment of  family  ties  and  extinguished  civic  virtues. 

The  Badge: 

The  usual  badge  was  a  yellow,  red  or  white  ring  on 
the  upper  garment.  The  Jew  found  without  it  was  fined. 
The  shapes  and  colors  varied  in  different  lands.  Usually 
round,  at  times  it  was  made  in  the  shape  of  the  Tablets 
of  the  Law. 

Morals  of  the  Clergy: 

Read  Tlie  Council  of  Trent,  by  James  Anthony  Froude, 
for  the  complete  account  of  the  degeneration  of  the 
Catholic  clergy.  Also  Caesar  Borgia,  by  Garner,  Mc- 
Bride,  Nast  &  Co.,  N.  Y. 

Francis  d'Assisi: 

Leaders  of  Christian  and  Anti-Christian  Thought,  by 
Ernest  Renan.     Mathieson  &  Co.,  London. 

The  Ghetto  in  Church  Legislation: 

Old  European  Jezvries,  chap,  iii,  by  David  Philip- 
son.     Jewish  Publication  Society  of  America. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

Contrast  the  Jewish  Essenes  with  the  Christian  monks. 


THE  SYNAGOGUE  AT  REGENSBURG 


154  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

JEWISH   LIFE   IN  GERMAN  STATES. 

The  Church  now  dominated  society,  giving  character 
to.  its  popular  hfe  and  entering  so  largely  into  all  its 
concerns  as  to  make  the  position  of  the  Jew  who  was 
not  of  the  Church  still  more  anomalous.  We  saw  (p. 
49)  that  economically  he  had  no  place  in  the  feudal 
system.  In  language,  food  and  occupation,  in  belief  and 
outlook  so  different  was  his  life,  that  Christian  and  Jew 
might  have  said  one  to  the  other :  "Our  ways  are  not 
your  ways,  nor  our  thoughts  your  thoughts." 

A  Jewish 
Troubadour. 

Yet  he  did  not  stand  willingly  aloof,  when  religion 
did  not  bid  withdrawal.  For  example,  we  find  a  Jew 
among  the  troubadours.  Those  poet  minne-singers 
{minnc — love)  would  wander  with  harp  and  lyre  from 
castle  to  castle  where  the  baron  and  his  lady,  together 
with  their  retainers,  would  listen  to  their  song  of  chivalry 
and  adventure  and  throw  them  money  {largesse,  as  it  was 
called),  on  which  they  lived.  A  Jewish  poet  of  this  order 
was  Susskind  of  Trimberg-on-the-Saale,  who  flourished 
about  the  year  1200.  A  few  of  his  lyrics  are  preserved, 
wherein  the  knight  and  his  lady  of  the  days  of  romance 
were  among  his  favorite  themes.  But  his  own  life  re- 
vealed the  conflict  of  Israel  among  the  nations  that  he 
portrays  in  the  fable  of  the  wolf.  Either  he  can  be 
minne-singer  to  the  Gentile  and  suppress  the  Jew,  or,  he 
may  throw  in  his  lot  with  his  people  and  then  he  must 


JEWISH    LIFE   IN    GERMAN    STATES  155 

abandon  his  art.     How  often  has  that  alternative  faced 
the  son  of  Israel  even  in  brighter  days! 

The  feudal  baron  occasionally  lowered  the  portcullis 
of  his  castle  to  admit  the  Jew  bringing  wares  from  a 
distant  land.  At  times  he  received  articles  of  value  in 
exchange  for  money,  when  money  was  the  need — say  of 
the  impoverished  knight  who  wished  to  vary  the  mo- 
notony of  an  idle  career  by  wandering  forth  to  the  wars, 
and  needed  suitable  ecpupment.  He  would  expect  to 
redeem  the  pledge  by  hiring  out  his  sword  to  any  lord 
who  had  a  skirmish  on  hand,  for  it  was  the  day  of 
mercenaries. 

The  "Ritual 
Murder"  Slander. 

In  times  of  peaceful  lull  the  Jew  was  let  alone,  though 
"severely  alone."  But  he  was  always  at  the  mercy  of 
the  caprice  of  the  multitude.  At  best  he  was  mistrusted 
and  readily  made  the  object  of  suspicion.  Ha  dead  body 
was  found  it  was  quite  usual  to  charge  the  murder  to  the 
Jews  on  the  grotesque  theory  that  they  had  used  the  blood 
for  their  Passover  ritual.  Little  did  the  Christian  know 
that  in  formulating  this  monstrous  charge  against  the 
Jew  it  was  but  borrowing  from  the  pagan  an  earlier 
charge  brought  against  the  Christian  ;  in  the  latter  case 
it  was  a  follower  of  the  Church  who  had  been  charged 
with  using  blood  for  his  sacrament  service,  in  the  former 
that  he  used  i'  in  the  Passover  bread.  Both  charges  were 
equally  fabulous,  that  against  the  Jew,  based  on  the 
biblical  precept  to  place  the  blood  of  the  lamb  upon  the 
door-post ;  that  against  the  Christian,  based  on  the  belief 
that  the  wine  at  the  sacrament  miraculously  became  the 
blood  of  the  Savior.  With  Christianity's  rise  to  power, 
the  slander  against  the  Church  soon  disappeared ;  but 
against  the  Jew  it  grew  in  virulence  ;  and  on  this  false 


156 


SCHAMES   ALLEY   IN    PRAGUE. 


JEWISH    IJFE   IN    CKRMAN    STATES  157 

charge  Jews  were  slain  every  century  and  in  every  land. 
Nor  is  this  lie  yet  dead.  In  1247  the  Jews  appealed  to 
Pope  Innocent  IV  for  protection  against  this  calumny. 
He  issued  a  bull  declaring  the  charge  false  and  un- 
founded. But  it  was  brought  up  again  every  few  years 
—in  Mayence  in  1283,  in  Munich  in  1285,  in  Oberwesel 
and  Boi)pard  in  1286.  Other  instances  will  be  detailed 
later.     The  charge  always  meant  plunder  and  massacre. 

Another 
Synod. 

A  synod  had  been  convened  by  R.  Gershom  in  the 
year  1000;  a  second,  in  the  year  1146  after  the  Second 
Crusade.  Now,  to  strengthen  the  bonds  between  Jew 
and  Jew  in  those  perilous  days,  another  synod  was  sum- 
moned at  Mayence  in  the  year  1223: 

First,  it  arranged  to  divide  the  distribution  of  the  bur- 
den of  royal  taxation  in  fair  proportion.  (For  when  a 
king  decided  to  extort  money  from  "his  Jews,"  he  might 
favor  one  Jew  by  exemption  at  the  expense  of  others.) 
This  decision  and  those  that  follow  throw  a  lurid  light 
on  the  times : 

No  bad  treatment  by  Gentiles  should  justify  dishon- 
orable treatment  of  them. 

It  severely  condemned  the  counterfeiting  of  coin. 

The  "informer" — whose  mischievous  disclosures  often 
brought  so  much  injury — was  to  make  good  any  loss  in- 
curred by  his  betrayal  (p.  127). 

He  who  sought  an  office  in  the  synagogue  by  bring- 
ing outside,  Gentile,  influence  to  bear,  was  to  be  ex- 
communicated. ( In  j\Iaccab?ean  days  Jason  sought  the 
high  priesthood  through  Greek  influence  (T.  Y.,  p.  33), 
History  was  repeating  itself.) 


158  IIISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

The  "  Empire." 

Yet,  in  the  German  Empire,  "so  called,"  the  emperor 
gave  the  Jews  a  quasi  protection,  as  did  Conrad  111.  in 
the  second  crusade.  But  there  was  none  to  protect  them 
from  the  emperor,  who  was,  as  it  w^ere,  the  court  of  last 
resort.  He  usually  had  his  hands  full  to  suhvert  the 
intrigues  of  his  rival,  the  Pope.  Then,  too,  his  local 
office  as  German  king  conflicted  with  his  international 
past  as  Roman  emperor.  Sometimes  the  emperor  was  a 
Saxon,  sometimes  a  Franconian,  then  a  Bavarian  or  a 
Swabian  or  again  an  Austrian.  For  Germany  then  in- 
cluded pretty  well  all  of  Central  Europe— a  group  of 
States — not  a  nation. 

The  conflict  between  the  pope  and  the  emperor  grew 
in  bitterness  ;  that  between  Pope  Hadrian  and  Barbarossa, 
the  most  picturesque  monarch  of  the  Middle  Ages,  has 
already  been  told.  The  latter  would  have  liked  to  have 
been  a  Charlemagne,  but  he  spent  his  best  years  in  fight- 
ing for  that  elusive  prize, "Roman  kingship,"  crossing  the 
Alps  six  times  that  he  might  have  more  profitably  devoted 
to  strengthening  Germany. 

Then,  too,  the  Italian  himself  protested  against  this 
subordinate  position  and  fought  against  the  German  kings 
for  independence.  That  conflict  continued  for  three 
centuries.  The  opponents  acquired  ^party  names  from 
their  respective  war  cries.  The  Guelphs  (Welfe)  sup- 
ported the  Pope,  the  Ghibelines  (Waiblingen)  rallied 
round  the  German  emperor.  The  pope  supported  the 
Italian  side,  not  to  further  Italian  independence,  but 
only  to  curb  the  emperor's  power. 

The  Emperor's 
Right  in  the  Jews. 

In  these  struggles  the  Jew  could  take  no  official  part, 
yet  he  was  often  made  the  sufferer.     Much  depended  on 


JEW  IS  [I    IJFI-:    IN    CKKMAN    STATES  1 59 

the  whim  of  the  emperor.  Though  Barharossa  was  firm 
in. exacting  his  vested  rights  in  the  Jews,  yet  he  was  not 
ill-disposed  towards  them.  What  were  those  vested 
rights?  The  German  emperors  claimed  to  he  the  heredi- 
tary successors  of  the  ancient  Roman  emperors.  Since 
a  Roman  emperor,  Vespasian,  had  conquered  the  Judsean 
State,  the  Jews  were  regarded  as  the  emperor's  servants. 
This  old  claim  was  now  revived  vmder  the  title  of  "ser- 
vants of  the  chamber."  It  really  meant  that  the  reveinie 
derived  from  the  Jews  was  the  emperor's  perquisite  for 
his  private  treasury.  Yet,  for  that  matter  without  any 
such  supposed  right,  English  and  French  kings  sold  and 
leased  their  Jews  as  their  personal  chattels.  Under  gra- 
cious emperors  Jews  could  carry  arms  and  hold  lands 
and  slaves.  But  these  were  never  assured  rights,  only 
temporary  grants. 

An  example  of  capricious  treatment  of  the  Jews  is 
well  seen  in  the  case  of  Frederick  II  (who  became  em- 
peror in  1 212).  He  was  a  grandson  of  Barharossa,  last 
of  the  Hohenstaufen  line.  A  cultured  man  speaking  six 
languages,  and  a  patron  of  letters,  he  was  not  unnaturally 
interested  in  Jewish  scholarship.  He  invited  some  savants 
to  settle  in  Italy  and  befriended  them.  One  of  these 
was  Jacob  Anatoli,  a  pupil  of  Michael  Scotus.  He 
translated  for  the  emperor  the  Arabic  of  Averroes'  Aris- 
totle into  Hebrew,  whence  it  was  translated  into  Latin. 
This  task  had  also  been  undertaken,  by  Ibn  Tibbon. 

Yet  this  same  Frederick  II  shut  the  Jews  up  in  ghet- 
tos, restricted  their  occupations,  heavily  taxed  them  and 
forced  them  to  wear  the  badge.  He  even  rebuked  Duke 
Frederick  of  Austria  for  issuing  the  following  laws  for 
Jewish  protection.  The  murderer  of  a  Jew  should  be 
put  to  death  ;  the  kidnaper  of  a  Jewish  child  was  to  be 


l6o  HISTORY     OF     TTIE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

punished  for  theft;  Jews  were  to  have  local  jurisdiction 
and  to  be  protected  from  extortion.  What  a  pity  the 
Austrian  Frederick  was  not  emperor  1 

Small  comfort  was  it  to  the  Jew,  never  eager  for  re- 
venge, to  see  Frederick  II,  in  spite  of  his  seven  crowns, 
worsted  in  conflict  with  the  popes  and  dying  under  the 
ban.  After  all,  hard  tliough  he  was,  Frederick  II  might 
have  been  regarded  as  a  protecting  providence  of  Israel 
compared  with  their  persecutors  after  his  death.  For 
anarchy  now  followed,  and  it  went  hard  with  them  in 
the  Guelf  and  Ghibeline  struggle.  War  always  brings  out 
the  savage  in  man,  and  the  Jew  was  a  convenient  outlet 
for  brutal  lusts.  They  were  burnt  in  the  Sinzig  syna- 
gogue by  self-styled  "Jvidenbrenner"  (burners  of  Jews). 
In  spite  of  Duke  Frederick's  humane  provisions,  Austria 
reaffirmed  all  the  anti-Jewish  edicts  of  the  Fourth  Lat- 
eran  Council  of  121 5. 

Meir  of 
Rothenberg. 

\Mien,  in  1273,  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg  was  chosen  em- 
peror some  condition  of  order  and  security  was  restored. 
Aided  financially  by  the  Jews,  he  gave  them  some  pro- 
tection and  issued  a  denial  of  the  "blood  accusation." 
Under  him  flourished  Meir  of  Rothenberg,  one  of  the 
last  of  the  Tosafists  (p.  129).  Much  as  we  admire  his 
Talmudic  erudition — for,  like  R.  Gershom,  he  was  called 
"a  light" — still  more  do  we  esteem  his  piety.  The  Ger- 
man Jews,  with  Meir  at  their  head,  had  determined  to 
leave  this  land  of  persecution  and  emigrate  to  the  East. 
But  the  flight  of  Meir  and  his  party  was  discovered  and 
he  was  arrested.  Rudolph  did  not  wish  the  withdrawal 
of  a  people  whom  he  could  mulct  from  time  to  time. 
Meir  was  imprisoned.    The  Jews  oflfered  a  large  sum  for 


JEWISH  LIFE  IN  GERMAN   STATES  l6l 

the  release  of  their  revered  teacher.  But  the  noble  man 
refused  freedom  on  that  condition,  fearing  that  the 
precedent  might  suggest  to  future  rapacious  kings  a  new 
means  of  squeezing  the  Jews. 

Like  Akiba,  he  answered  questions  on  the  Law  from 
his  prison;  and  in  the  prison  he  died  in  1293.  Even  his 
body  was  held  for  ransom. 

Poets  and  legalists  usually  move  in  dififerent  planes. 
But  Meir,  the  Tosafist,  was  a  poet,  too,  with  the  Law 
naturally  as  his  theme.  Here  are  some  verses  from  a 
dirge  bewailing  the  burning  of  the  Pentateuch  in  1285 
in  Paris.  It  is  incorporated  in  Fast  of  Ab  ritual — a. 
Kinah  or  lamentation : 

The  Burning  of  the  Law, 

Ask,  is  it  well,  O  thou  consumed  of  fire, 

With  those  that  mourn  for  thee. 
That  yearn  to  tread  thy  courts,  that  sore  desire 

Thy   sanctuary ; 

That,  panting  for  thy  land's  sweet  dust,  are  grieved, 

And  sorrow  in  their  souls, 
And  by  the  flames  of  wasting  fire  bereaved, 

Mourn  for  thy  scrolls  ; 

And  thou  revealed  amid  a  heavenly  fire, 

By  earthly  fire  consumed. 
Say  how  the  foe  unscorched  escaped  the  pyre 

Thy  flames  illumed  1 

Thou  sittest  high  exalted,  lofty  foe  1 

To  judge  the  sons  of  God ; 
And  with  thy  judgments  stern  dost  bring  them  low 

Beneath  thy  rod. 

O  Sinai !  was  it  then  for  this  God  chose 

Thy  mount  of  modest  height. 
Rejecting  statelier,  while  on  thee  arose 

His  glorious  light  ? 


l62  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAl,     JEWS 

Moses;  and  Aaron  in  the  mountain  Hor; 

I  will  of  them  inquire : 
Is  there  another  to  replace  this  Law 

Devoured  of  fire? 

In  sackcloth  I  will  clothe  and  sable  band, 

For  well-beloved  by  me 
Were  they  whose  lives  were  many  as  the  sand — 

The  slain  of  thee. 

I  am  astonied  that  the  day's  fair  light 

Yet  shineth  brilliantly 
On  all  things : — it  is  ever  dark  as  night 

To  me  and  thee. 

E'en  as  thy  Rock  has  sore  afflicted  thee 

He  will  assuage  thy  woe  ; 
Will  turn  again  the  tribes'  captivity, 

And  raise  thee  low. 

My  heart  shall  be  uplifted  on  the  day 

Thy  Rock  shall  be  thy  light, 
When  He  shall  make  thy  gloom  to  pass  away, 

Thy  darkness  bright. 

Translated  by  Nina  Davis. 

Notes  and  References. 
The  Popes  and  the  "Blood  Accusation"  {Ritual  Murder): 

Reference  has  been  made  to  the  Bull  of  Innocent  IV, 
issued  in  1247.     We  give  a  translation  in  full: 

To  the  Archbishops  and  Bishops  of  Germany. 

We  have  received  a  pitiable  complaint  from  the  Jews 
of  Germany.  They  say  that  some  nobles,  lay  and  ecclesi- 
astical, and  other  powerful  and  notable  men  within  your 
cities  and  dioceses,  designing  to  seize  and  usurp  their 
goods  unjustly,  devise  against  them  impious  counsels  and 
invent  diverse  pretexts.  Without  considering  that  testi- 
monies to  the  Christian  Faith  have  proceeded  from  their 
records  and  that  the  sacred  scripture  among  other  pre- 
cepts of  the  Law  says :  "Thou  shalt  not  kill."  and  for- 
bids them  at  their  Passover  ceremonies  to  touch  any  dead 


1 63 


INTERIOR  ALT-NEU  SYNAGOGUE  AT  PRAGUE. 


164  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

flesh,  they  falsely  accuse  the  Jews  of  using  in  these  same 
ceremonies  the  body  of  a  murdered  child,  thinking  that 
the  said  practice  is  required  by  their  Law,  whereas  it 
is  clearly  contrary  to  their  Law.  And  they  cast  upon  the 
Jews,  with  malicious  intent,  any  corpse  that  by  chance  is 
discovered  at  any  place.  Attacking  them  with  these  and 
other  inventions,  and  without  formal  accusation,  confes- 
sion or  conviction,  and  in  despite  of  the  privileges  con- 
ceded to  the  Jews  by  the  clemency  of  the  Holy  See,  they 
despoil  them  of  their  goods  (contrary  to  the  law  of  God 
and  of  justice),  and  they  visit  them  with  hunger,  im- 
prisonment and  so  many  calamities  and  afflictions,  pun- 
ishing them  with  diverse  punishments  (even  condemning 
many  of  them  to  shameful  death)  that  the  Jews,  living 
under  the  rule  of  the  said  princes,  notables,  and  powerful 
men  in  worse  plight  than  were  their  fathers  under  Pha- 
roah  in  Egypt,  are  compelled  to  leave  places  where  they 
and  their  ancestors  have  dwelt  from  time  immemorial. 
Hence,  in  fear  of  extermination,  they  have  thought  it 
necessary  to  have  recourse  to  the  protection  fo  the  Holy 
See.  Now,  therefore,  being  unwilling  that  the  Jews 
should  be  unjustly  harassed  (for  God  in  his  mercy  awaits 
their  conversion,  seeing  that,  on  the  testimony  of  the 
Prophet,  it  is  believed  that  the  remnant  of  them  is  des- 
tined to  be  saved),  we  order  that  you  show  yourselves 
favourable  and  well  disposed  to  them,  and  whenever  you 
find  any  violent  attempt  made  against  them,  with  respect 
to  the  matters  mentioned  above,  by  the  prelates,  nobles, 
and  powerful  men  aforesaid,  you  shall  see  that  the  matter 
is  treated  according  to  law,  and  shall  not  in  future  permit 
the  Jews  to  be  improperly  molested  on  these  or  similar 
charges  by  any  persons  whatsoever.  Those  who  molest 
them  you  shall  summarily  restrain  by  your  ecclesiastical 
censure. 

We  append  the  Bull  of  Gregory  X,  issued  in  1272: 

Since  Jews  cannot  bear  testimony  against  Christians, 
we  decree  that  the  testimony  of  Christians  against  Jews 
shall  be  of  no  avail  unless  there  is  a  Jew  bearing  testi- 
mony among  them.    For  it  sometimes  happens  that  Chri§' 


JEWISH   LIFE   IN  GERMAN    STATES  165 

tians  lose  their  children,  and  Jews  are  charged  by  their 
enemies  with  taking  them  away  and  killing  them  and 
using  their  hearts  and  blood  for  religious  purposes ;  the 
fathers  of  the  children,  or  other  Christians,  in  hatred  of 
the  Jews,  hide  the  children  away  so  that  they  may  cause 
trouble  to  the  Jews  and  gain  money  from  them  for  re- 
lieving them  from  their  trouble,  and  in  order  that  they 
may  most  falsely  assert  that  the  Jews  have  secretly  stolen 
and  murdered  their  children  and  that  they  use  the  blood 
for  religious  purposes,  whereas  their  law  strictly  forbids 
them  to  use  blood  for  ceremonial  purposes,  or  to  taste  it, 
or  to  eat  the  flesh  of  animals  with  cloven  hoofs,  as  has 
been  many  times  demonstrated  at  our  court  by  Jews  con- 
verted to  the  Christian  faith.  On  charges  of  this  kind 
Jews  have  often  been  seized  and  imprisoned  unjustly.  We 
decree  that  in  such  cases  the  testimony  of  Christians 
against  Jews  shall  not  be  admitted ;  that  Jews  impris- 
oned on  this  empty  charge  shall  be  liberated ;  that  they  be 
not  imprisoned  in  future  on  this  empty  charge  unless 
(which  we  cannot  believe)  they  are  found  in  the  act. 

Similar  Bulls,  protesting  against  the  calumny  were 
issued  by  Martin  V,  1422;  Nicholas  V,  1447,  and  Paul 
III,  1540. 

Jezvish  Troiihadours. 

Jezvish  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages,  by  Israel  Abrahams, 
pp.  361-2,  J.  P.  S.  of  A. 

Onlv  a  Word,  a  story  of  mediaeval  life  in  which  the 
hired  mercenary  plays  so  large  a  part.  The  avithor  won- 
derfully reproduces  the  atmosphere  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
Original  German  by  George  Ebers 

Servants  of  the  Chamber: 

Latin:  Servi  camerae ;  German,  Kammerknechtschaft. 
Camera  means  chamber. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

The  troubadour  Siiskind  suggests  the  question  in  how 
far  could  mediaeval  Jews  enter  into  the  social  life  of  the 
Gentile. 


l66  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

CHAPTER    XVIII. 

KOW  FARED  THE  JEWS  OF  ENGLAND 

Britain,  situated  at  the  extreme  northwest  of  Europe, 
and  an  island  at  that,  was  reached  by  civihzation  later 
than  the  southern  or  central  portion  of  the  Continent. 
The  Roman,  Julius  Csesar,  contemporary  of  Herod  and 
Hillel,  found  the  Britains  just  before  the  dawn  of  the 
Christian  era  little  better  than  savages.  There  is  no 
record  of  Jewish  settlement  in  its  early  barbaric  history. 
During  the  v/hole  formative  Saxon  period,  when  the 
seven  petty  Kingdoms  were  welded  into  one  and  Britain 
became  England,  there  are  only  a  few  references  to  Jews 
in  the  Church  chronicles.  One  of  these  prohibits  Chris- 
tians from  appearing  at  Jewish  feasts.  A  prohibition 
always  reveals  a  practice.  Until  the  Norman  conquests 
their  presence  here  was  fleeting  and  their  numbers  sparse. 

Under 
Norman  Kings. 

But  when  William  the  Conqueror  came  over  from  Nor- 
mandy in  1066  he  brought  Jews  in  his  train.  They  had 
a  reputation  for  wealth  and  he  needed  money — 'twas  the 
chronic  need  of  kings.  So  many  of  the  Norman  castles 
seen  today  scattered  through  England  in  more  or  less 
state  of  decay  were  built  with  Jewish  gold.  His  succes- 
sor, Rufus,  rather  shocked  the  country  by  his  friendli- 
ness toward  those  whom  they  called  "the  enemies  of 
Christ."  Henry  I,  the  next  monarch,  granted  them  a 
charter   with   privilege    of    free   movement   through   the 


HOW    FAKED    THE    JEWS    OF    ENGLAND  167 

country  and  right  to  be  judged  by  their  peers  in  courts 
of  law. 

To  the  credit  of  the  Jews,  be  it  said,  they  immediately 
marked  their  presence  in  England  by  attention  to  educa- 
tion. In  Oxford,  where  Alfred  the  Great  had  established 
a  university,  they  built  Moses  Hall  and  Jacob  Hall  for 
the  training  of  their  children,  and  Lombard  Hall  in 
London,  the  capital.  They  also  had  communities  in  York, 
Lincoln,  Norwich,  Cambridge,  Canterbury  and  a  few 
other  English  towns.     (See  map,  p.  169.) 

"Blood 
Accusation." 

The  next  king,  Stephen,  reached  his  throne  in  1135 
(the  year  of  birth  of  Maimonides  in  Spain),  after  a  civil 
war.  The  impoverished  king  soon  followed  the  Conti- 
nental custom  of  mulcting  the  Jews  to  refill  his  exchequer, 
even  to  the  extent  of  hatching  slanderous  conspiracies 
against  them  as  pretexts  for  despoiling  them.  The  ru- 
mor went  forth  in  the  year  1144  that  Jews  had  stolen  a 
boy,  William  of  Norwich,  to  use  his  blood  for  the  making 
of  Passover  cakes  (Matzoth).  This  meant,  of  course, 
a  raid  on  Jewish  property.  This  was  the  first  recorded 
"blood  accusation."  Later  charges  in  other  lands  have 
already  been  recorded  in  the  preceding  chapter. 

At  Gloucester  and  Bury  St.  Edmunds  similar  charges 
were  brought  with  the  same  consequent  enrichment  of 
the  royal  exchequer.  A  shrewd  historian  has  remarked 
that  no  sooner  was  a  king  in  need  of  money  than  it  was 
conveniently  discovered  that  the  Jews  had  committed  a 
crime  justifying  the  payment  of  damages.  The  most 
notorious  of  these  boy  murder  charges  was  that  of  Hugh 
of  Lincoln,  in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century.  In 
that  case,  not  content  with  confiscating  their  property, 
twenty  Jews  were  hung  and  a  hundred  imprisoned. 


l68  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

In  all  of  these  cases  the  Jews  were  condemned  with- 
out trial.  The  retelling  of  this  story  in  Chaucer's  "Can- 
terbury Tales"  and  the  erection  of  a  shrine  over  the 
boy's  tomb  in  Lincoln  Cathedral  has  helped  to  perpetuate 
the  slander. 

Stephen's  successor,  Henry  II,  heavily  taxed  the  Jews, 
both  in  his  French  and  English  dominions.  By  the  atti- 
tude of  the  Church  they  were  disqualified  practically, 
though  not  officially,  for  public  office,  husbandry  and 
handicrafts.  This  exclusion  limited  their  means  of  liveli- 
hood to  trade  and  to  money-lending  on  interest,  then 
called  usury.  This  the  Church  condemned  as  sin — not 
realizing  the  biblical  distinction  between  lending  to  the 
poor  as  an  act  of  charity  and  lending  to  the  foreigner  for 
commerce  as  an  act  of  business  (see  Exod.  xxii,  25  ;  Le- 
viticus XXV,  35-38;  Deut.  XV,  7-11).  In  any  case  the 
Jew's  estate  was  forfeited  to  the  crown  at  his  death.  The 
monarch  then  here,  as  in  France,  used  the  Jews  as  a 
sponge  with  which  to  absorb  the  wealth  of  the  nation 
^(p.  145).  The  Crown  ultimately  obtained  the  money,  the 
Jews  in  the  end  only  the  odium. 

Under 
Plantaganet  Kings. 

Yet  neither  these  tragedies  nor  this  irksome  taxation 
quite  reflect  the  normal  status  of  English  Jews  during  the 
Plantaganet  era. 

Some,  banished  from  Northern  France  by  Philip  Au- 
gustus in  1 180  (p.  144),  found  a  safe  asylum  in  England 
On  the  whole,  we  may  say  the  Jews  were  kindly  treated 
as  long  as  ecclesiastics  did  not  antagonize  the  popu- 
lation against  them.  They  earned  the  reputation  of 
benevolence  to  their  poorer  brethren  and,  at  first,  many 


169 


I/O  IlISTUKV     OF     Tllli     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

proselytes  joined  the  synagogue.  Of  com  y^,  that  was 
not  long  permitted.  In  spite  of  tax  extortion  their  won- 
derful thrift  in  an  age  when  industrial  occupations  were 
despised  by  all  but  the  humblest  classes  and  where  their 
outlets  of  expenditures  were  few,  kept  them  in  affluence. 
Some  even  built  themselves  palaces  of  stone — but  not  as 
much  for  pride  as  for  protection.  For  gradually  they 
noticed  that  their  wealth  was  awakening  jealousy  and 
changing  cordiality  into  ill-will.  It  only  then  needed 
religious  prejudice  fomented  by  Thomas  a  Becket,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  for  that  ill-will  to  deepen  into 
hatred.  So  as  on  the  Continent,  the  Church  finally  suc- 
ceeded in  changing  their  status  from  one  of  friendliness 
and  equality  to  that  of  subserviency  and  isolation. 

This  antagonism  reached  its  climax  in  1189  at  the 
coronation  of  Richard  I — the  very  monarch  who,  com- 
ing to  the  East  on  the  third  Crusade,  invited  Maimonides 
to  be  his  physician.  A  body  of  the  most  representative 
Jews  of  England  attended  this  function  with  rich  presents 
from  their  brethren,  expressive  of  their  loyalty  and  in 
the  hoj)c  of  more  assured  protection.  How  terribly  far 
from  their  expectations  was  the  outcome !  The  display 
of  wealth  stirred  the  covetous  and  vindictive  passions  of 
the  surrounding  throngs.  The  deputation  was  plundered. 
The  savage  in  man  once  roused  is  not  easily  quelled.  The 
signal  given,  the  loot  of  Jewish  homes  and  injury  of  their 
persons  became  general  throughout  Jewish  settlements 
in  England — in  Norwich,  Edmondsbury,  Stamford,  Lin- 
coln.    But  the  tragedy  reached  its  climax  in  York. 

Tragedy  of 
York  Castle. 

Some  of  the  harassed  Jews  fled  to  York  Castle.  On 
came  the  mob  and  surrounded  the  castle.     The  clergy 


HOW    FAkK.I)    Tfli:    JEWS    OF    ENGLAND  I7I 

were  the  most  brutal,  in  urj^inj^  on  the  besiegers,  shout- 
ing "destroy  the  enemies  of  Christ."  Despair  gave  cour- 
age to  the  besieged,  when  the  resources  of  resistance  be- 
came exhausted.  The  venerable  rabbi  in  their  midst 
arose  and  said,  "The  God  of  our  fathers  hath  said  we 
must  die  for  our  religion  ;  let  us  then  die  by  our  own 
hands  rather  than  by  the  hands  of  these  savages."  Per- 
haps he  saw  a  precedent  in  the  self -slaughter  of  the  be- 
sieged in  the  fortress  of  Masada,  in  the  days  vvdien  Rome 
overthrew  Jud?ea  {T.  Y.,  j).  170).  In  awful  solemnity  the 
agonized  men  put  their  wives  and  children  to  death  and 
then  slew  themselves,  having  first  set  fire  to  the  castle. 
A  few  survivors  came  forth  and  begged  for  mercy.  But 
the  populace  rushed  in,  and,  disappointed  at  the  escape 
of  their  prey,  wreaked  their  glut  for  slaughter  on  these 
few  survivors.  No  punishment  was  inflicted  on  the  ma- 
rauders, though  nearly  a  thousand  Jewish  souls  perished 
on  that  awful  day.  Later  the  matter  was  investigated, 
but  indignation  was  expressed,  not  at  the  destruction  of 
the  Jews,  but  only  at  the  destruction  of  records  of  out- 
standing debts  to  them,  which  could  now  not  be  collected 
by  the  Crown.  Only  the  property  actually  found  could 
go  to  the  royal  exchequer. 

When  King  Richard  returned  from  the  Crusades,  he 
gave  some  attention  to  the  Jews,  but  only  in  the  sense 
of  their  being  a  revenue-producing  body.  The  valuation 
of  their  incomes  and  corresponding  assessment  became  a 
department  of  the  State.  They  were  "protected,"  but  the 
price  came  high. 

• 
King  John. 

John  will  always  be  remembered  as  the  monarch  whose 
outrageous  behavior  roused  all  the  barons  of  England  to 
unite  in  compelling  him  to  sign  the  Magna  Charter,  in 


17:2  HISTORY    OF    THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

1215.  Thus  his  very  badness  indirectly  gave  to  the  Eng- 
lish people  their  charter  of  liberty.  Such  are  life's  com- 
pensations. 

With  the  Jews  this  unprincipled  man  followed  a  crafty 
policy.  He  offered  those  in  his  French  dominions  every 
inducement  to  settle  in  England.  Once  there,  he  gave 
them  every  opportunity  to  amass  wealth,  confirming  all 
old  rights  for  a  money  consideration.  When  the  time  was 
ripe  he  dropped  the  mask  and  plundered  them.  The  calf 
had  been  fattened  for  slaughter.  His  cruelty  was  relent- 
less in  forcing  his  claim.  From  Abraham  of  Bristol  he 
ordered  that  a  tooth  each  day  should  be  drawn  until  after 
the  loss  of  seven,  the  tortured  man  gave  up  10,000  marks. 
Nor  were  the  barons  much  kinder ;  but  still  in  the  Magna 
Charta,  drawn  up  by  them,  a  rough  justice  was  accorded 
to  the  Jew. 

Henry  III. 

In  the  long  reign  of  Henry  HI  their  condition  grew 
steadily  worse.  Their  movements  were  more  restricted 
and  they  were  treated  as  the  king's  chattels.  The  per- 
sistent enmity  of  the  Church  had  now  thoroughly  im- 
pregnated the  people.  The  distinctive  badge  instituted 
by  Innocent  III  and  the  Lateran  Council  (in  the  very 
year  of  the  Magna  Charta)  was  now  introduced  into  Eng- 
land. Proselytism  to  Judaism  was  forbidden  as  a  capital 
offense,  while  conversion  of  Jews  to  Christianity  was 
encouraged  by  every  possible  means,  a  special  dornus  con- 
vcrsiorum  (house  of  proselytes),  being  established  for 
the  purpose,  where  apostates  could  live  at  the  pub- 
lic charge.  Following  the  unworthy  example  of  pre- 
vious kings,  Henry  III  exacted  one-third  of  the 
Jewish  possessions — this  was  followed  by  later  ex- 
actions.    Aaron  of  York  was  mulcted  at  30,000  marks. 


now    FARED   THE    JEWS    OF    ENGLAND  1 73 

Next  the  king  "leased"  the  Jews  to  V*s  brother  Richard 
to  be  squeezed  again.  In  1240  he  called  a  Jewish  "Par- 
Hament,"  but  only  as  a  device  to  exact  20,000  marks  more. 
Though  almost  forced  to  the  obnoxious  trade  of  money- 
lending,  they  did  not  find  it  an  exclusive  monopoly ;  they 
encountered  rivals  in  the  Caorsini  of  Italy.  Drained  in 
this  way,  the  Jews  of  England  begged  permission  to  leave 
the  kingdom.  This  was  refused,  so  completely  now  were 
their  persons,  property  and  movements  at  the  mercy  of 
the  king. 

As  the  powerful  barons  had  made  use  of  the  Jews  to 
acquire  the  lands  of  the  small  barons,  they  were  now 
denied  all  rights  of  landed  property. 

Jews  Banished 
from  England. 

This  sad  state  of  things  brings  us  to  the  next  reign — 
that  of  Edward  I,  who  closed  an  epoch  in  English  Jewry. 
For  it  was  the  beginning  of  the  end.  A  religious  man, 
according  to  his  lights,  he  bluntly  forbade  the  practice 
of  usury  but  granted  the  Jews  1  :rmission  to  engage  in 
handicrafts  and  agriculture.  But  it  was  an  empty  privi- 
lege. Long  estranged  from  the  soil  they  could  not  in 
a  moment  assume  the  role  of  farmers — though  rental  of 
farms  for  ten  years  was  allowed.  Farming  involves  long 
and  sure  tenure.  As  to  the  manual  arts,  the  guilds  of  the 
Middle  Ages  (corresponding  somewhat  to  the  trade 
unions  of  today,  but  into  which  Jews  were  not  then  ad- 
mitted) controlled  the  handicrafts. 

So  this  situation,  depriving  them  of  livelihood,  made 
their  status  impossible.  Some  became  outlaws,  some  apos- 
tates and  some  stooped  to  a  crime,  in  vogue  at  the  time, 
of  clipping  the  coin.  It  was,  as  it  were,  a  retaliation  in 
small — for  the  crimes  committed  against  Jews  in  large. 


174 


IIIS1()R\'     OV     Till':     Mi:i)IAKVAL     JEWS 


Thus  bad  treatment  demoralizes.  For  this  crime  Jews 
were  hanged — non-Jewish  offenders  being  let  off  on  a 
lighter  penalty. 

The  king  and  the  Church  now  began  shutting  up  ail 
synagogues.  The  toils  were  closing  around  Anglo-IsraeJ. 
The  Church  next  forbade  social  and  industrial  relations 
between   jew  and  Christian.     There  was  only  one  thing 


HOUSL    OF     AARON     OF    LINCOLN 


left  for  the  king  to  do — to  expel  them.  This  he  did.  In 
T290  the  dread  edict  went  forth.  All  debts  to  Jews  were 
cancelled.  None  dared  linger  under  penalty  of  death, 
however  precarious  their  condition  or  their  circumstances. 
As  in  Egypt  of  old,  they  were  driven  forth,  some  of 
the  16,511  perishing  by  the  way.  The  mob  followed  them 
with  cries  of  triumph.  One  ship  captain,  paid  to  convey 
a  number  to  the  Continent,  and  having  all  their  goods 
on  board,  sailed  away  leaving  them  stranded  on  the  shore 


now  FARED  THE  JEWS  OF  ENGLAND  I  75 

amidst  the  jeers  of  the  bystanders.  No  mercy  to  the  out- 
cast dcicidcs,  "slayers  of  God,"  as  they  were  called.  So 
Israel  had  to  take  np  the  wanderer's  staff  again  to  try  and 
find  an  oasis  in  this  hostile  world  desert — a  pillow  where 
he  might  lay  his  weary  head. 

Notes  and  References. 

Pre-cx pulsion  Relics: 

The  entire  relics  of  the  Jews  of  England  up  to  the 
expulsion  in  1290  are  few — some  stone  houses,  a  bronze 
ewer  and  some  documents  in  which  they  are  character- 
istically styled  "sons  of  the  Devil."  There  are  still  pre- 
served some  200  Shtaaroth  (contracts)  in  Hebrew.  This 
Chaldaic  word  staar  was  introduced  into  the  Latin  as 
staarnm;  it  is  said  that  the  "Star  Chamber"  of  England 
was  so  called,  because  it  was  the  depository  of  these  docu- 
ments. 

Ibn  Ezra  wrote  his  Hebrew  grammar  during  his  Eng- 
lish stay. 

Aaron  of  Lincoln. 

Joseph  Jacobs  is  the  best  authority  on  the  pre- 
expulsion  i)eriod  of  Anglo-Jewish  history.  His  article 
"Aaron  of  Lincoln"  {JcivisJi  Quarterly  Revieiv,  vol.  x) 
throws  much  light  on  the  peculiar  financial  relations  be- 
tween the  Crown  and  the  Jews.  This  greatest  finan- 
cier died  in  1186,  when  all  his  immense  wealth  went  to 
the  king  as  that  of  all  "usurers,"  so  called.  Perhaps  it 
was  he  who  "organized  the  English  Jewry  into  one  great 
banking  association."  Since  all  loan  of  money  for  profit 
was  condemned  by  the  Church,  the  development  of  Eng- 
lish industry  would  have  been  sadly  impeded  were  it  not 
for  the  Jews.  In  this  way  the  building  of  sixteen  or 
more  abbeys  and  monasteries  was  due  to  Aaron  of  Lin- 
coln ;  he  also  enabled  the  abbeys  to  acquire  lands  and  to 
buy  hay.  Earls,  abbots,  priors,  bishops,  sheriffs,  arch- 
deacons, municipalities  and  towns  borrowed  from  him. 
The  king  used  the  money  he  took  from  the  Jews  to  get 
the  barons  into   his  power.      Since  he  was   satisfied  to 


176  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

receive  only  part  of  debts  outstanding  to  a  Jew  at  his 
death,  this  often  encouraged  needy  and  unscrupulous 
debtors  to  slay  the  Jewish  creditor.  Mr.  Jacobs  deplores 
that  "the  intolerance  of  the  Church  prevented  Aaron  of 
Lincoln  (and  others)  from  devoting  his  talents  of  organ- 
ization to  any  purpose  but  the  sordid  one  of  money 
seeking." 

Ritual  and  History: 

From  the  old  Jewish  Prayer  Book  valuable  bits  of  his- 
tory may  be  gathered,  for  very  often  an  elegy  or  dirge 
written  on  the  occasion  of  a  persecution  would  be  incor- 
porated into  the  Liturgy.  For  example,  a  Lamentation 
was  written  on  the  English  massacres  at  London  and  at 
York  in  1190,  when  the  sad  news  was  brought  to  the 
Continent  by  eye  witnesses.  From  it  we  learn  that  Eng- 
lish Jews  were  known  for  their  piety  as  well  as  their 
wealth. 

Expulsion  from  England: 

The  expulsion  was  very  thorough.  No  conforming 
Jew  was  seen  in  England  from  1290  to  1657,  the  year  of 
their  re-settlement. 

The  Jczvs  of  Angevin,  England,  Joseph  Jacobs,  Put- 
nam, 1893. 

"By  associating  a  Christian  oath  with  entry  into  every 
reputable  calling,  State  combined  with  Church  to  prevent 
the  Jew  from  association  with  his  neighbor  in  most  nat- 
ural and  usual  way." 

Catalogue  "Anglo-Jewish  Historical  Exhibition," 
Frank  Haes,  London,  1888. 

Jews  of  York,  Isaac  Disraeli,  in  Curiosities  of  Litera- 
ture. 

"Expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  England,"  B.  L.  Abra- 
hams, Jczvish  Quarterly  Review,  vol.  vii. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

What  defense  can  be  ofifered  for  Edward's  expulsion 
of  the  Jews? 


177 


BOOK   IV. 


RATIONALISM    AND    MYSTICISM. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


France. 


Jew*  burnt  in  Blois 
on  ritual  murder 
charge    1171 

Extinction  of  AI- 
bigenses     122f 

Yechiel  of  Pari*,  in 
Disputation    1240 

Burning  of  Talmud, 
Paris    1242 

Council  of  Beziers  1246 

Louis  IX  (The  Pi- 
ous) banishes  the 
Jews  from  his  do- 
miniona    1254 


Kolonymos    b.    Ka<- 

lonymos     1287 

Gersonides,     b 1288 

Moses  Narboni   1300 

First  expulsion  of 
Jews      by      Philip 

IV    (le    bel) 1300 

Return    1315 

Gesereth   Ha-roem  1320 
Gesereth    M  e  t  z  a- 

raem     1321 

Second        expulsion 

by    Charles    IV...  1322 
Battle  of  Poictiers.l35< 

Return    of   Jews 1359 

Third  and  last  ex- 
pulsion  by 
Charles  VI ISM 


Spain. 

Almohedes'  perse- 
cution     1146 

Nachm€inides,   b 1194 

Isaac  Blind,  foun- 
d  e  r  of  Kabala, 
Azrael's    B  a  h  i  r, 

about   1200 

Alcharisi,  poet,  fl..l200 
Maimonides,  d 1204 


Solomon,   b.,   Adret 

(Rashba)    b 1245 

Moses  de  Leon,  b..l250 
Asher    ben    Jechiel.1250 
Don    Zag,    astrono- 
mer, about  1250 

Barcelona    disputa- 
tion   1263 


Jacob  b.,  Asher 
compiles  "Tur," 
(code  of  laws) 1340 


Miscellaneous. 


David  Alroy, 
pseudo  -  Messiah 
in    East    1160 


Frederick    II,    Em- 
peror     1212 


Rudolph  of  Haps- 
burg.    Emperor. .  .1247 

Innocent  IV,  issues 
bull  against 
Blood  Accusation.  1247 


Blood  Accusation 
begins  in  Ger- 
many    1283 

Saad  Addaula,  Fi- 
nance Minister  in 
Persia    1288 

Rindfleiscb    riots...  1298 


178 


MOSES  MAIMONIDES. 


179 


BOOK  IV.     RATIONALISM  AND  MYSTICISM 

CHAPTER     XIX. 
MAIMONIDES. 

Our  story  now  takes  us  back  once  more  to  Spain. 

Judaism  reaches  one  of  its  great  climaxes  in  Moses 
ben  Maimon,  "From  Moses  to  Moses  there  arose  none 
hke  Moses."  Greater  creative  spirits  had  arisen  in  Israel 
since  the  Lawgiver  stood  on  Pisgali,  but  none  so  able  to 
grasp  the  spirit  of  Judaism  in  its  entirety,  its  law  and  its 
philosophy,  and  to  give  it  its  comparative  place  in  the 
spiritual  development  of  man. 

Twenty-five  years  after  the  birth  of  Ibn  Daud,  thirty 
years  after  the  death  of  Rashi,  and  but  five  years  after 
the  death  of  Jehuda  Halevi,  Maimonides  was  born  in 
Cordova,  the  Athens  of  Jewish  and  Moslem  Spain.  He 
had  the  advantage  of  a  scholarly  father,  an  adept  in 
astronomy,  mathematics  and  in  the  Talmud.  Thus  he 
was  early  imbued  with  a  love  of  religion  and  with  an  ap- 
preciation of  general  culture.  But  the  son's  sphere  of 
study  took  a  wider  range  than  that  of  his  father,  em- 
bracing also  logic,  philosophy  and  medicine.  His  was 
one  of  those  master  minds  that  assimilate  all  knowledge 
of  the  age.  He  was  gifted  with  penetration  for  unlock- 
ing the  obscure,  with  genius  for  classification  and  with 
indefatigable  industry. 

Moslem  Unitarians. 

The  skies  were  not  as  bright  in  Maimonides'  boyhood 
^s  in  the  golden  days  of  Abder  Rahman  III.    The  usually 


l8o  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL    JEWS 

liberal  Moor  was  exhibiting  a  spell  of  intolerance.  It  will 
be  recalled  that  after  the  one  Caliphate  of  Cordova  had 
broken  up  into  many,  the  Almoravid  became  the  ruling 
royal  house  (p.  jt,).  But  now  another  Moorish  tribe, 
the  Ahnohadcs,  descended  upon  Spain  from  Africa  and 
held  sway  for  the  half  century  contemporaneous  with 
the  bulk  of  Maimonides'  life. 

Ahnohadcs  mean  Unitarians,  believers  in  one  God,  and 
Ibn  Timart  was  the  founder  of  this  new  sect.  But  were 
not  all  Mohammedans  such,  with  the  watchword  "Allah 
alone  is  God,"  differing  in  this  respect  from  the  trinitarian 
Christians?  Yes  and  no.  The  idea  of  Allah  (God) 
had  become  material  and  gross  in  the  minds  of  the 
masses  (p.  2)7)-  I^n  Timart  then  appeared  upon  the 
scene  as  a  sort  of  reforming  prophet  and  tried  to  give 
to  his  people  a  purer  idea  of  divinity. 

If  that  only  had  characterized  his  movement,  all  had 
been  well.  But  his  enthusiasm  reached  the  anti-climax 
of  fanaticism.  With  more  than  Puritan  zeal  he  de- 
nounced not  only  luxury  but  even  protested  against  the 
fine  and  liberal  arts.  Further,  he  relentlessly  persecuted 
both  Jews  and  Christians,  who  did  not  accept  his  creed. 
It  was  "the  Koran  or  the  sword"  again.  To  think  that 
the  Jew,  the  pioneer  Unitarian,  mankind's  apostle  of 
monotheism  (see  note),  should  be  persecuted  by  a  sect 
that  placed  on  its  banner  Judaism's  cardinal  dogma  so 
strictly  expressed  in  its  second  commandment  1  Logically 
Ibn  Timart  should  have  hailed  instead  of  rejecting  the 
Jew.     But  such  are  the  ironies  of  history. 

Forced  Converts. 

Cordova  was  taken  in  1148  by  the  new  Moslem  invader, 
and  with  it  the  beautiful  synagogues  of  Seville  and  Lu- 
cena.     The  Jews  had  to  choose  between  apostacy  and 


MAIMONIDES  lol 

exile.  Glad  'are  we  to  record  that  the  majority  chose 
exile.  So,  about  the  time  when  Maimonides  was  Bar 
Mitzvah,  his  family  left  their  native  land.  After  years 
of  wandering  they  reached  Fez  in  Morocco,  though  the 
Almohades  held  sway  there,  too.  Some  Jews  compro- 
mised. Outwardly  these  accepted  "the  turban,"  i.  e.,  the 
supremacy  of  the  prophetship  of  Mahomet,  and  attended 
the  mosque,  while  secretly  they  lived  according  to  Jewish 
law.  How  often  was  Israel  forced  to  take  that  dubious 
stand.     We  shall  meet  it  again. 

A  Jew  of  the  Maghreb  (Morocco)  wrote  to  a  distant 
rabbi  asking  the  status  of  those  who,  to  save  their  lives 
and  those  of  their  families,  voiced  the  formula  "Allah  is 
God  and  Mahomet  is  his  prophet."  The  reply  was  bru- 
tally severe — "they  have  no  status  in  Judaism  and  their 
prayers  would  be  unacceptable  to  God." 

Maimonides'  father  had  earlier  displayed  a  kindlier 
attitude  in  his  famous  "letter  of  consolation."  Here, 
while  in  no  sense  condoning  the  Moslem  disguise  he 
had  yet  said :  "He  who  clings  to  the  Law  v^ith  but  his 
finger  tips  has  more  hope  than  he  who  lets  it  go  alto- 
gether." 

But  now  Maimonides  himself  on  behalf  of  the  waver- 
ing Jews  of  Morocco  answered  the  rabbi  who  preached 
martyrdom — at  a  safe  distance.  His  letter  breathed 
charity  to  his  sore  tried  brethren.  That  was  well.  But 
he  went  further,  and  distinguished  between  heathen  and 
Moslem  coercion.  The  former  had  demanded  trans- 
gression of  Judaism  in  deed,  the  latter  only  in  word. 

While  recognizing  the  tremendous  difference  between 
idolatry  and  Islam,  we  must  say  that  this  particular  dis- 
tinction is  not  well  taken.  For  religion  deals  essen- 
tially with  the  inner  life.  It  demands  sincerity  first  and 
last.     Only  "he  who  speaketh  the  truth  in  his  heart  can 


l82  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

enter  God's  tabernacle."  (This  point  is  discussed  on 
page  69). 

Maimonides,  however,  was  right  in  stating  in  a  case 
of  this  kind  that  martyrdom  is  meritorious,  not  manda- 
tory. It  is  heroic  to  die  for  one's  rehgion  ;  but  not  all 
are  heroes.  The  spirit  of  his  letter  in  refusing  to  abandon 
those  who  had  strayed,  while  urging  them  to  seek  homes 
where  they  could  frankly  live  the  Jewish  life,  was  wise 
and  helpful. 

This  famous  "Letter  on  Apostacy"  (Iggcreth  Hashc- 
niod),  written  when  he  was  but  twenty-five,  was  not  the 
first  product  of  his  pen.  He  had  already  given  forth  an 
astronomical  treatise  on  the  Jewish  calendar,  a  book  on 
logic,  a  natural  history  and  some  Rcspojisa  (note  p. 
129). 

Physiciem 
in  Egypt. 

In  the  meantime  home  and  fortunes  had  changed.  He 
had  left  the  intolerant  atmosphere  of  Fez;  later  we  find 
him  in  Palestine,  and  eventually  he  settled  in  Fostat,  the 
port  of  Cairo,  Egypt.  In  1166  his  elder  brother  was 
drowned  and  his  wealth  with  him.  Maimonides  now 
became  the  sole  support  of  the  family.  How  did  he 
gather  the  means — as  a  teacher  of  the  Law?  No!  he 
lived  up  to  that  fine  rabbinical  maxim,  "The  Law  must 
not  be  used  as  a  crown  or  a  spade,"  and  he  vented  his 
contempt  on  all  who  did.  Although  it  was  his  life  work 
it  was  a  labor  of  love.  He  and  his  brother  had  been 
diamond  merchants.  Now  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
more  congenial  calling  of  physician.  In  medicine  alone 
he  had  written  many  works  on  haemorrhoids,  poisons, 
antidotes  and  asthma — largely  summaries  of  the  great 
masters  from  Galen  down. 

Indeed  it  was  to  his  ability  as  a  doctor  that  he  won 


MAIMONIDRS  183 

eminence  in  the  non-Jewish  world.  Even  Kinj^  Richard 
of  England  wanted  him  as  his  physician.  For  the  third 
Crusade  had  brought  the  "lion-hearted"  king  to  the  East 
(p.  127).  His  Saracen  (Eastern  Mohammedan)  oppo- 
nent was  Saladin,  whom  fate  and  ability  had  raised  to 
the  Egyptian  throne  and  made  vizier  of  the  Caliph.  His 
star  still  in  the  ascendant,  his  supremacy  steadily  spread 
through  Asia  until  we  find  him  Caliph  of  Bagdad.  In 
all  lands  where  he  held  sway,  Jews  found  a  safe  asylum. 
He  is  one  of  the  world's  great  men.  Both  Sunnites  and 
Shiites  (orthodox  and  reform  Moslem)  forgot  their  dif- 
ferences and  came  under  his  banner.  This  was  a  strange 
contrast  to  the  dissensions  in  the  Christian  camp  in  this 
Crusade.  No  wonder  the  armies  of  the  Cross  were  so 
hopelessly  defeated. 

Egypt  was  a  great  Jewish  centre  at  this  time.  Its 
communities  under  a  nagid  (prince)  were  allowed  to 
live  their  own  life  undisturbed.  When  Maimonides  set- 
tled there,  natural  fitness  placed  him  at  the  head  of 
Egyptian  Jewry — a  post  he  accepted  without  compensa- 
tion. He  brought  a  truer  knowledge  of  Judaism  among 
them  and  breathed  new  life  into  the  community.  He  rec- 
onciled Rabbanites  with  Karaites,  throwing  in  his  influ- 
ence with  the  former.  For  the  Karaite  movement  had 
not  fulfilled  the  promise  of  its  early  days  of  becoming 
the  banner  bearer  of  learning  light  and  rational  interpre- 
tation of  Jewish  Law. 

So  Maimonides  made  Cairo  a  great  centre  for  Juda- 
ism and  Saladin  made  it  a  centre  for  Mohammedanism. 

Writings  of 
Maimonides. 

We  must  now  consider  the  three  great  works  of  Mai- 
monides, to  which  he  owes  his  immortality  and  which 
gave  a  new  impetus  to  Jewish  theological  thought. 


184  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

First,  his  commentary  on  the  Mishna  called  "Light" 
(Hebrew,  Maor).  It  was  written  in  Arabic  which,  as 
already  pointed  out,  was  the  native  tongue  of  Eastern 
Jews.  Now  the  Gemara  itself  is  a  commentary  on 
the  Mishna,  forming  together  with  it — the  Talmud  (T. 
Y.,  p.  251 ),  But  the  Gemara  is  so  much  more  than  a  com- 
mentary that  a  concise,  clarifying  exposition  was  yet  an 
unfulfilled  need.  Maimonides'  clear  insight  made  him 
the  ideal  commentator.  He  showed  at  once  reverence  yet 
independence  and  the  critic's  all-important  quality — dis- 
crimination. 

But  the  Maor  is  not  only  a  commentary  on  the  text, 
but  also  a  general  survey  of  each  theme  as  a  whole. 
(See  chapter  on  "Rashi"  on  this  point,  pp.  134  and  137.) 
Here  and  there  he  furnishes  scientific  data  and  ethical 
instruction  in  which  he  brought  to  bear  all  his  varied 
knowledge.  Then,  too,  he  commented  on  the  Law  in  the 
light  of  later  Jewish  practice. 

A  Jewish  Creed. 

This  broad  and  exhaustive  treatment  led  him  to  formu- 
late a  complete  Jewish  creed. 

This  was  strangely  new.  Judaism  had  never  been  ex- 
pressed in  a  system  of  beliefs  before.  Deed  had  always 
been  its  center  of  gravity.  Its  tendency  was  to  grant 
liberty  of  belief,  but  to  demand  conformity  of  action. 
Of  course,  certain  fundamentals  were  implied.  Prime 
importance  of  belief  in  God  was  involved  in  the  rabbinic 
dictum,  "Die  rather  than  proclaim  belief  in  a  false 
divinity."  The  second  commandment  shows  that  idola- 
try, not  atheism,  was  the  fear  then.  People  worshiped 
many,  rather  than  none.  Belief  in  "the  world  to  come" 
was  implied  in  the  teaching,  "Who  denies  future  life  will 
be  denied  future  life,"     But  a  complete  summary  of  be- 


MAIMONIDES  185 

lief,  "such  and  such  is  Judaism"  was  an  innovation.  Per- 
haps the  suggestion  of  formulating  it  came  unconsciously 
from  the  Church,  whose  Councils  from  time  to  time  for- 
mulated specific  articles  of  creed,  and  drew  hard  lines 
between  orthodoxy  and  heresy. 

So  Maimonides  may  have  felt  it  necessary  to  define 
Judaism  in  order  to  distinguish  it  from  Christianity  on 
the  one  hand,  and  Islam  on  the  other,  and  to  answer  the 
missionaries  of  both.  In  reading  Maimonides'  "Thirteen 
Articles,"  we  can  see  that  they  were  so  worded  as  to 
bring  out  the  distinction  between  Judaism  and  the  two 
great  religions  which  had  been  derived  from  it. 

We  here  give  them  in  brief  with  some  of  Maimonides' 
comments : 

First: — The  Existence  of  God,  on  whose  being  all  other 
beings  depend. 

Second: — The  Unity  of  God,  whose  oneness  is  allness ; 
if  one  God  suffices,  a  second  is  superfluous.  If  one 
God  is  not  sufficient.  He  cannot  be  perfect,  and 
therefore  cannot  be  divine.  (This  is  really  an  argu- 
ment against  the  Trinity.) 

Third: — God's  Spirituality — not  subject  to  motion,  rest, 
time  or  space. 

Fourth: — God's  Eternity.  God  is  the  First  Cause,  the 
ever-active  Intellect.  (Here  we  see  the  influence 
of  Aristotle's  philosophy.) 

Fifth: — Prayer  to  God  only  (as  against  prayer  to  saints 
or  departed  souls). 

Sixth -.—The  Truth  of  the  Prophets.  (See  next  chapter 
on  his  definition  of  prophecy.) 

Seventh: — The  Supremacy  of  the  Prophet  Moses  for  All 
Time.  (This  is  a  distinct  challenge  to  Mahomet's 
cl«iim,  The  Prophet,  superseding  all  others.) 


l86  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

Eighth: — The  JVIiolc  of  Our  Lcnv  icas  given  to  Moses. 
(Possihly  a  defense  of  the  traditional  oral  rabbinic 
lavv  and  a  reply  to  the  Karaites. 

Ninth: — The  Permanence  of  the  Law.  (This  is  an  an- 
swer to  the  Christian  claim  that  the  coming  of  Jesus 
abrogated  the  Mosaic  Law.    T.  Y.,  pp.  133,  199.) 

Tenth  : — God's  Omniscience. 

Eleventh: — God  Rewards  the  Obedient  and  Punishes  the 
Transgressor.  What  is  the  highest  reward — life 
hereafter ;  what  is  the  gravest  punishment — annihi- 
lation (mark,  not  hell). 

Twelfth: — The  Coming  of  the  Messiah.  We  are  look- 
ing forward  to  an  age  rather  than  to  a  man  (note,  p. 
260 ) . 

Thirteenth: — The  Resurrection.  (Opinions  differ  as  to 
whether  Maimonides  implied  here  only  immortality 
of  the  soul  or  also  revival  of  the  body.  It  was  the 
discussion  of  this  question  that  first  led  him  to  draw 
up  a  Jewish  creed.) 

Although  no  synod  endorsed  the  validity  of  these 
"Thirteen  Articles  of  Creed,"  they  have  been  accepted 
as  the  official  expression  of  the  Jewish  belief,  and  as 
such  are  incorporated  in  the  ritual  in  prose  and  in  verse 
(the  hymn  Yigdol).  Not  that  they  passed  entirely  un- 
questioned ;  later  theologians  reduced  the  number  of 
Judaism's  essentials. 

Summary  of 
Jewish  Law. 

The  second  great  work  of  Maimonides  was  of  similar 
character  to  the  first,  "Light,"  but  of  vaster  scope.  It 
was  a  summary  of  all  Talmudic  law  and  was  called 
"Yod  Hachazaka"  (see  note).     His  work  on  the  Mishn?. 


MAIMONIDES  187 

was  a  commentary  ;  his  work  on  the  entire  Tahiiud  was 
a  codification.  For  not  only,  as  has  been  already  i)ointed 
out,  does  the  Talmud  contain  law  (Halacha),  but  in  addi- 
tion thereto  much  miscellaneous  material  summarized 
under  the  general  title,  Agada  (narrative).  But,  fur- 
thermore, even  the  Halacha  is  not  systematized,  but  ar- 
ranged when  it  is  arranged  at  all,  on  a  somewhat  arbi- 
trary plan.  So  it  is  really  hard  to  find  a  particular  law 
in  its  intricate  mazes  of  discussion. 

Maimonides  therefore  conceived  the  gigantic  task  of 
collecting  all  the  laws  contained  in  the  Bible,  Talmud  and 
the  later  Geonim  and  classifying  them  in  a  Code.  This 
great  work,  consisting  of  a  thovisand  chapters,  and  which 
absorbed  so  many  of  his  best  years,  was  preceded  by  an 
introductory  summary  of  the  affirmative  and  negative 
precepts. 

Maimonides  begins  his  book  of  law  with  God,  the 
source  of  law ;  this  he  expands  into  a  philosophy  of 
religion.  This  divinity  behind  the  precept  is  never  lost, 
and  it  exalts  the  most  trivial  injunction  into  an  act  of 
divine  service.  Not  that  he  presented  all  law  on  one 
level.  He  distinguished  between  the  literal  and  the  fig- 
urative and  between  the  biblical  law  and  the  rabbinic 
deduction.  At  times  he  ventures  to  drop  the  superstitious 
customs  that  often  grow  around  laws  like  barnacles  on  a 
ship,  and  also  to  omit  precepts  that  had  become  obsolete. 

Yet  this  great  work  had  the  fault  of  its  virtues.  In 
leaving  out  all  the  Talmudic  argument  that  led  up  to  a 
law  he  certainly  simplified  it  for  the  layman,  but  thereby 
presented  it  as  a  dogmatic  decision  rather  than  a  logical 
deduction.  Dogmatism  was  distinctively  repugnant  to 
the  Jewish  sense.  As  far  as  possible  he  would  know 
why  he  is  asked  to  obey  this  law  or  that.  As  long  as  the 
Halacha  was  connected  with  its  chain  of  discussion,  it 


l88  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

was  pliable  and  even  open  to  modification  by  later  rabbis. 
But  set  down  apart,  it  becomes  crystalized  and  unchange- 
able. Its  life  depends  on  fluidity,  the  opportunity  for 
new  interpretation. 

Maimonides  wanted  to  save  ,the  Law  from  endless 
commentary,  yet  his  "Yod"  gave  rise  to  commentaries 
of  its  own.  Compare  this  experience  with  that  of  the 
Karaites,  compelled  to  draw  up  new  rites  and  rules,  the 
very  thing  they  had  organized  to  avoid  (p.  32). 

So  not  all  Israel  accepted  Maimonides'  deductions  un- 
questioned, as  a  final  court  of  appeal.  Still  it  was  very 
popular  and  spread  throughout  the  whole  Jewish  world, 
though  the  printing  press  was  not  yet  at  hand  to  mani- 
fold copies.  Poets  sang  its  praises  and  even  Christian 
and  Moslem  scholars  gave  it  appreciative  study. 

It  is  remarkable  that  both  in  formulating  a  creed  and 
in  summarizing  the  Law,  this  most  progressive  of  men 
endeavored  to  give  to  both  Jewish  belief  and  practice 
a  finality  that  would  have  prevented  their  growth  and 
advance. 

We  will  now  consider  in  a  separate  chapter  the  great- 
est product  of  his  great  mind.  It  is  rather  recommended 
to  advanced  pupils. 

Notes  and  References. 
Saladin: 

Lessing  wrote  Nathan  der  Weise  to  challenge  Chris- 
tianity's claim  to  the  monopoly  of  religious  truth  and 
worth.  He  therefore  skilfully  chose  this  epoch  of  the 
Third  Crusade,  when  the  Moorish  East  was  most  civilized 
and  Christian  Europe  most  barbaric. 

Walter  Scott,  in  his  Talisman,  also  contrasts  Saladin 
favorably  with  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion. 

The  Great  Hand: 

Maimonides'  Mishna  Tor  ah,  i.  e.,  "Second  Law,"  is  also 


MAIMONIDES 


189 


called  Yod  Hachasaka  ("The  Great  Hand")  for  the  fol- 
lowing reason :  I*  Yod  numbers  "Fourteen."  The  work 
contained  fourteen  books ;  the  phrase,  "great  hand,"  is 
applied  by  Moses  to  the  power  of  God,  who  did  much 
for  Israel  through  "the  hand  of  Moses"  ;  this  work  was 
written  by  a  Moses  (Maimon).  Hence  the  work  con- 
sists of  "fourteen"  books  of  "Moses"  Maimonides,  and 
deals  with  the  Law  and  Power  ("hand")  of  God.  This 
is  a  good  exam])le  both  of  the  customary  use  of  a  Bible 
phrase  for  the  title  of  a  book  and  of  the  fantastic  ex- 
planation. 

Unity  of  God: 

Greek,  Mono-theism  ;  Latin,  Unitarianism.  See  Studies 
in  Judaism,  ch.  vi ;  "The  Dogmas  of  Judaism,"  S.  Schech- 
ter.    J.  P.  S.  of  A. 

"Judaism  and  Unitarianism,"  M.  H.  Harris,  in  Ser- 
mons of  American  Rabbis. 

See  Jezvisli  Quarterly  Review,  vol.  ii,  article  on  Mai- 
muni's  father's  "Letter  on  Apostacy." 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

The  difference  between  Judaism  and  Christian  Uni- 
tarianism. 


MOSES    HALLj    BURY    ST.    EDMUNDS. 


190  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

C  H  A  P  T  E  R     XX. 

"THE  GUIDE  TO  THE  PERPLEXED." 

Religion  and 
Philosophy. 

Now  for  a  brief  survey  of  Maimonides'  greatest  work, 
"Guide  to  the  Perplexed."  It  was  addressed  directly  to 
his  pupil,  Joseph  Aknin,  and  was  intended  only  for  the 
thinking  few,  perplexed  by  some  apparent  contradic- 
tions between  the  Bible  and  the  current  philosophy.  To 
quote  one  of  its  introductory  sentences: — "My  theory 
aims  at  pointing  out  a  straight  way.  Ye  who  have  gone 
astray  in  the  field  of  the  Holy  Law,  come  hither  and 
follow  the  path  which  I  have  prepared."  Its  purpose 
was  to  make  clear  the  essential  harmony  between  the 
concepts  of  God  and  the  soul  as  taught  by  Revelation 
and  the  conclusions  about  the  universe  taught  by  meta- 
physics. It  is,  then,  a  reconciliation  between  religion  and 
philosophy  between  faith  and  reason. 

So  universal  problems  are  here  fully  discussed — God's 
omniscience  and  man's  free-will ;  the  existence  of  evil  and 
the  inherent  goodness  of  the  world  and  many  other  ap- 
parent contradictions  of  life. 

Just  as  Philo  endeavored  to  reconcile  Judaism  with 
Neo-Platonism,  the  prevailing  philosophy  of  his  day,  so 
now  Maimonides,  a  scholar  with  a  profounder  grasp  of 
Judaism,  endeavored  to  harmonize  it  with  the  teaching 
of  Aristotle,  the  dominant  system  of  thought  in  his  time. 

He  first  treats  both  Judaism  and  philosophy  as  emana- 
tions of  the  divine  spirit.  Revelation  to  him  includes 
both.     The  rabbis  had  said  that  the  Oral  Law  (as  con- 


"the  guide  to  the  perplexed  191 

tained  in  the  Alishna)  had  been  revealed  on  Alount  Sinai 
as  well  as  the  Written  Law  (Pentateuch) — why  not  also 
philosoph}-?  He  further  said  the  human  mind  at  ^ts 
highest  can  think  out  for  itself  what  was  revealed  at 
Sinai,  and  can  reach  the  stage  of  prophecy  without  super- 
natural aid.  (Jehuda  Halevi  took  the  opposite  posit. on 
— Revelation  and  Prophecy  to  him  were  superior  be 
cause  supernatural,  while  philosophy  because  dependent 
on  human  Reason,  was  fallible  p.  99). 

God. 

So  far  the  introduction.  He  begins  the  work  proper 
by  laying  emphasis  on  God  as  pure  spirit.  Therefore, 
all  biblical  anthropomorphisms,  i.  e.,  all  instances  where 
Scripture  speaks  of  God  in  a  human  way  are  explained 
by  him  as  symbolic  expressions  of  philosophic  ideas.  He 
defines  God  as  the  Principle  of  all  Essences,  the  First 
Cause,  the  Ever-active  Intellect. 

Next  as  to  God's  nature.  The  Bible  ascribes  attri- 
butes to  Him.  These  are  not  really  divine  qualities,  but' 
only  our  human  attempt  to  explain  the  quality  of  His 
actions.  For  God  cannot  have  equalities  ;  they  belong  only 
to  finite  beings  and  imply  limitations.  They  only  express 
comparative  degrees  between  beings  of  similar  character. 
A  man  is  good  or  wise  compared  with  another  not  as  in- 
telligent or  as  worthy.  But  God  is  unlimited,  alone, 
supreme,  incomparable.  We  can  speak  of  His  existence 
— no  more. 

So  far  the  declaration  of  God's  being;  next  to  prove 
it(  as  far  as  it  can  be  proved).  Behind  the  existing 
moving  universe  there  must  be  a  permanent  Being,  set- 
ting all  in  motion  without  being  part  of  that  motion. 
In  this  First  Being  power  and  action  are  simultaneous 
without  an  intervening  step.     In  God  alone  they  are  one 


19^  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

Spirit  and  Matter. 

The  bridging  of  the  gulf  from  infinite  to  finite,  from 
spirit  to  matter,  from  God  to  the  world,  had  always 
been  a  baffling  problem.  Even  Maimonides,  rationalist 
though  he  is,  drops  into  mysticism  here.  He  imagines 
nine  heavenly  spheres,  each  with  a  directing  soul,  an 
intellect.  The  highest  sphere  is  the  first  Intelligence — 
direct  emanation  from  the  First  Cause,  God.  These  ema- 
nations pass  down  through  groups  of  spheres  until  the 
lowest  sphere  is  reached.  Here  we  come  to  the  active 
intellect — the  world  of  man.  Thus  the  gradual  descent 
from  spirit  to  matter  is  attained.  From  pure  spirit  comes 
intellect ;  from  coarse  matter,  sin.  The  angels  of  the 
Bible  are  the  intelligences  of  philosophy ;  thus  he  sought 
to  harmonize  Scripture  with  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle. 

We  may  be  surprised  that  so  sober  and  rational  a 
mind  as  Maimonides  should  imagine  the  heavenly 
spheres  as  endowed  with  souls !  But  the  era  of  science 
had  not  yet  dawned.  What  knew  the  world  of  his  day 
of  natural  law,  of  spectrum  analysis?  Had  it  not  yet 
to  wait  four  hundred  years  before  Galileo  would  demon- 
strate that  the  earth  moves,  and  he  was  imprisoned  even 
for  making  the  assertion  1 

Prophecy. 

Next,  Maimonides'  theory  of  man.  He  is  both  matter 
and  spirit  in  varying  degrees.  His  soul  steadily  expands 
as  he  uses  his  knowledge  to  conquer  his  frailties.  For 
the  soul  is,  as  it  were,  a  spiritual  stage  which  we  grad- 
ually attain  in  our  growth  upward.  By  freedom  of  will 
divinely  granted  to  all  we  can  rise  intellectually  and 
morally  to  the  degree  of  the  angels.  This  highest  at- 
tainable stage  is  prophecy — communion  with  God.  In 
its  most  exalted  degree  it  was  attained  only  by  Moses. 


"the  guide  to  the  perplexed"  193 

Every  human  being  may  become  a  prophet  by  earnest 
energy  of  mind  and  heart.  To  attain  prophecy  is  to 
win  immortahty.  Therefore,  the  punishment  of  those 
who  make  no  efifort  to  expand  the  mind  and  who  yield 
without  a  struggle  to  the  lust  of  the  senses,  is  oblivion, 
the  loss  of  future  life. 

Evil,  then,  he  teaches,  is  not  a  positive  entity ;  it  is 
simply  the  failure  of  man  to  reach  the  perfect  standard 
of  right.  This  disposes  at  once  of  a  Devil,  a  positive 
spirit  of  evil. 

Scripture. 

He  accepted  the  authenticity  and  authority  of  the 
Scripture,  but  claimed  the  right  of  his  own  interpreta- 
tion. He  discerned  an  outer  meaning  for  the  multitude, 
an  inner  meaning  for  the  penetrating  few.  That  has 
always  been  a  popular  notion. 

Perhaps  at  times  he  went  a  little  far  in  expounding 
Bible  teachings  on  philosophic  lines.  For  example,  some 
of  its  early  stories  he  treats  as  abstract  ideas  in  the 
form  of  incidents.  Adam's  three  sons  are  the  three  divi- 
sions of  man — vegetable,  animal,  intellectual.  Jacob's 
wrestling  and  Balaam's  speaking  ass  are  explained  away 
as  visions.  Adam's  sin  marks  the  relations  between  sen- 
sation and  moral  faculty.  (This  may  recall  the  explana- 
tion of  Scripture  allegorically  by  the  Alexandrian  school 
in  Philo's  day.) 

He  was  no  blind  follower  of  Aristotle — certainly  not 
when  it  was  a  question  between  Scripture  and  the  Greek 
master.  So  he  rejected  the  philosophic  theory  of  "the 
eternity  of  matter,"  for  the  teaching  of  Genesis  that  God 
created  it.  Here  he  followed  Ibn  Daud  (p.  iii).  In 
fact,  he  parts  company  with  philosophy  and  stands  wholly 
on  religious  ground  in  declaring  that  everything  exists 
by  God's  will. 


194  IllSTOKV     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

He  reveals  at  once  his  faith  and  ojjtiniisni  in  teaching 
that  every  precept  in  the  l^jrah  was  intended  to  further 
the  physical  and  spiritual  welfare  of  man.  Man  is  the 
object  of  creation  and  his  happiness  the  ultimate  aim  of 
divine  law.  God  imposes  nothing  arbitrary.  Some 
Mosaic  laws  that  do  not  reflect  the  highest  phase  of 
civilization  are  improved  modifications  of  institutions 
so  universally  prevalent  in  the  age  of  Moses  that  the 
time  for  abolition  was  not  yet  ripe.  He  regards,  for  ex- 
ample, animal  sacrifice  as  such  a  concession  to  prevailing 
practice.  We  might  add  to  this  i^roup  slavery  and 
polygamy.  * 

Thus,  throughout,  Judaism's  dogmas  are  presented  as 

harmonizing    with    the    ripest  thought    of    the    twelfth 

century  and  Judaism's  law  as  rational,  logical,  benevo- 
lent and  uplifting. 

Influence  of 
"The  Gu5do." 

The  "Guide  to  the  Perplexed"  gave  a  new  impetus  to 
Jewish  thought  and  a  decided  status  to  Jewish  theology ; 
Judaism  was  henceforth  regarded  as  a  philosophy  as  well 
as  a  law. 

It  was  a  guide  to  the  perplexities  of  his  day ;  and, 
though  scientific  investigation  has  changed  our  theory  of 
the  universe,  it  remains  in  many  respects  a  guide  to  the 
perplexities  of  ours.  The  salutary  influence  of  the  work 
and  the  man  was  felt  throughout  the  whole  Jewish  world. 
Nay,  further — like  Gabirol's  "Source  of  Life"  (note,  p. 
83) — it  did  missionary  work  among  the  Gentiles.  Once 
more  "from  Zion  went  forth  the  Law."  Translated  from 
Arabic  to  Hebrew  {March  NcbiicJiiin),  it  was  re-trans- 
lated from  Hebrew  to  Latin ;  studied  by  the  greatest  of 
the  scholastic  philosophers  of  the  Middle  Ages,  Albertus 


THE  GUIDE  TO  THE  PERPLEXED  I95 

Magnus,  Duns  Scotus,  and  chiefly  by  Thomas  Aquinas,  it 
largely  influenced  Christian  thought. 

Some  General  Teachings 
of  Maimonides. 

So  far  a  general  outline  of  these  three  great  works. 
but  some  quotations  from  them  and  from  his  miscel- 
laneous writings  may  give  us  a  better  insight  into  his 
great  mind  and  ethical  outlook : 

"The  dietary  lazi's;'  he  declared,  "are  only  sanitary 
laws."  (We  would  not  say  "only"  to-day.  They  had  a 
sanctifying  purpose,  too).  And  he  here  uses  his  medical 
knowledge  to  offer  valuable  suggestions  about  physical 
exercise.  He  said  simple  laws  of  health  should  be  a 
part  of  every  one's  education.  He  strongly  condemned 
asceticism.  Here  he  dealt  a  blow  at  the  fasting  hermits 
so  numerous  in  his  time. 

Again  he  tells  us :  "We  should  dress  up  to  our  means, 
but  eat  below  our  means."  His  word  on  all  things  is 
essentially  rational ;  he  is  that  or  nothing.  "Prayers 
should  be  simple  and  brief."  When  his  enemies  said, 
"the  essence  of  faith  is  blind  obedience,"  he  replied : 
"Yes,  the  faith  of  a  fool."  "Judaism's  verification  de- 
pends not  on  miracles."  Again :  "  We  hear  too  much  of 
unions  in  Israel,  let  us  hear  more  of  union."  When  asked 
why  he  always  looked  toward  the  future  he  replied : 
"Because  my  eyes  are  in  front." 

But  he  had  to  answer  sceptics  as  well  as  believers. 
We  might  almost  think  that  he  had  to  confront  the  doc- 
trine of  evolution  when  he  said :  "We  do  not  remove 
the  wonders  of  creation  by  pushing  it  back  to  the  crea- 
tion of  an  atom."  He,  too,  realized  the  danger  of  indif- 
ference, for  he  preferred  a  sin  done  in  innocent  sincerity 
to  a  divine  command  fulfilled  carelessly.    He  fought  hard 


196  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

against  formalism  and  superstition.  As  to  the  Hereafter, 
he  ridicules  the  sensual  heaven  of  the  Moslem  and  the 
cruel  hell  of  the  Christian.  "The  future  life  for  the 
good  is  not  a  garden  of  Eden  of  worldly  pleasure  enjoyed 
in  idleness,  with  diamonds,  couches  and  wines,  nor  for 
the  bad  is  it  a  consuming  fire."  "He  who  asks  what 
shall  be  my  reward  if  I  obey  is  still  like  the  child  who 
studies  for  a  cake." 

His  Estimate  of 
Christianity. 

Of  Christianity  he  said :  "It  has  done  more  to  spread 
abroad  the  Bible  than  Judaism  itself ;  wherever  it  carried 
trade  it  carried  the  Bible,  doing  Jewish  work  with  non- 
Jewish  hands."  How  liberal  and  how  true !  This  remark 
the  Gentile  censors  struck  out  of  his  work.  Why?  They 
did  not  want  it  to  he  known  how  broad  and  tolerant 
Jewish  teachers  were.  For  the  same  reason,  they  struck 
out  the  famous  line  in  the  Talmud:  "The  righteous  of 
all  creeds  shall  inherit  future  life."  The  persecution  of 
the  Jews  has  taken  many  subtle  forms. 

His  keen  mind  discerned  the  distinction  between  cus- 
tom and  law  ;  and  he  drew  a  sharp  line  between  the  true 
science  of  astronomy  and  the  false  science  of  astrology. 

His  Ethical  Will. 

Here  are  some  extracts  from  his  last  will  to  his  son : 
A  will  that  bequeaths  valuable  counsel  is  called  an  ethical 
will — a  kind  of  will  that  is  never  disputed  in  the  law 
courts : 

"Serve  God  with  love :  fear  only  preventeth  sin,  but 
love  stimulateth  to  do  good." 

"Accustom  y^ourself  to  good  morals,  for  the  nature  of 
man  dependeth  upon  habit,  and  habit  taketh  root  in 
nature." 


THE   GUIDE  TO   THE   PERPLEXED  197 

"Conduct  yourself  with  care  and  with  honor." 

"When  you  ask  a  question  or  reply  to  one,  be  not 
rash;  speak  in  choice  language,  in  a  pure  tongue,  in  a 
moderate  voice  and  strictly  to  the  subject,  as  one  who 
seeketh  to  learn  and  who  searcheth  for  truth  and  not  as 
one  who  quarreleth  and  is  eager  for  victory." 

"Let  truth,  by  which  you  may  apparently  lose,  be 
more  acceptable  unto  you  than  falsehood  and  injustice 
by  which  you  may  apparently  profit." 

"I  have  found  no  remedy  for  the  faltering  of  the  heart 
like  the  pursuit  of  truth  and  justice." 

"Keep  firm  to  your  word ;  let  not  document,  witness 
or  actual  possession  be  stronger  in  your  sight  than  a 
verbal  promise." 

"Keep  far  from  subterfuges,  pretexts,  sharp  practice, 
flaws  and  evasions ;  woe  to  him  who  buildeth  his  house 
upon  them." 

"Discern  the  value  of  forbearance  and  you  will  be 
holy  in  the  eyes  of  your  enemies." 

"There  is  no  nobility  like  morality  and  no  inheritance 
like  faithfulness." 

Notes  and  References. 

A  delightful  book  on  Maimonides,  by  Abrahams  and 
Yellin,  has  been  issued  by  the  Jewish  Publication  Society 
of  America. 

Translations  of  "Guide  to  the  Perplexed": 

Into  Hebrew,  by  Samuel  Tibbon — the  Moreh  Nebu- 
chim.  Two  into  Latin — one  by  Buxtorf.  Into  English, 
by  Dr.  M.  Friedlander,  Bloch  PubHshing  Co. 

Philosophic  Problems : 

An  intermediary  link  between  the  perfect  God  and  the 
finite  world  was  posited  by  Philo  in  the  Logos ;  it  was 
expressed  again  by  Gabirol,  and  we  shall  meet  it  further 
expanded  in  the  Kabala. 

Nearly  all  writings  on  Jewish  philosophy  since  our 
author's  day  centre  around  the  "Moreh." 

Our   author   is    referred   to   sometimes   as    Maimuni. 


198  HISTORV     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

sometimes  as  Maimon-ides  (son  of  M.)  and  also,  after 
his  initials,  as  RaMBaM. 

Many  of  Rambam's  letters,  unearthed  from  the  gcnica 
at  Cairo  are  now  extant. 

For  friendly  relations  between  Jews  and  Christians, 
read  Jczvish  Life  in  Middle  Ages,  1.  Abrahams,  pp.  413- 
414. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

Why  did  Maimonides  write  his  Summary  of  Jewish 
Law  in  Hebrew  and  his  Philosophy  in  Arabic? 


JEWS  SWORN   IN   COURT. 


199 


CHAPTER    XXI. 

MAIMUNISTS  AND  ANTI-MAIMUNISTS. 

Maimuni  and  the 
Jews  of  Arabia. 

Distant  communities  would  send  to  the  learned  doctor, 
"the  Light  of  the  East,"  for  counsel  in  difficulties.  Such 
a  case  arose  in  Yemen,  Arabia.  The  condition  of  the 
Jews  there  had  greatly  deteriorated  since  pre-Mohamme- 
dan  days  {T.  Y.,  ch.  xl.)  Their  religious  knowledge 
was  very  vague  and  they  knew  Scripture  only  in  Agada 
tales.  In  the  latter  part  of  Maimuni 's  life  the  Moham- 
medans there  were  somewhat  intolerant  and  at  this  crit- 
ical moment  an  Israelite  arose  claiming  to  be  the  Messiah. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  Messiahs  always  appeared  in  times 
of  trouble  all  through  Jewish  history,  since  the  days  of 
the  exile.  They  often  added  to  the  misfortune  they  ex- 
pected to  remedy — for  such  movements  would  usually 
be  treated  by  the  authorities  as  treasonable.  In  this  per- 
plexity, the  thoughtful  few  appealed  to  Maimonides. 

His  reply,  "Letter  to  the  South"  (Yemen),  is  famous. 
First  he  appealed  to  their  faith ;  trials  are  tests  of  Provi- 
dence ;  and  he  demonstrated  Judaism's  supreme  worth  to 
those  "halting  between  oi>inions."  This  brave  letter  that 
dared  to  criticize  Islam  and  the  Church  was  read  by  the 
whole  Yemen  community,  and  created  a  religious  revival 
there ;  while  his  influence  with  the  Court  of  Saladin  im- 
proved their  political  standing.  No  wonder  the  Jews 
of  Yemen  included  his  name  in  the  Kaddish  prayer.     , 


200  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

A  Strenuous 
Life. 

An  idea  of  his  "strenuous  life"  cannot  Be  better  pre- 
sented than  in  an  abstract  from  a  letter  to  a  friend : 

"My  duties  to  the  Sultan  (the  Vizier  Alfadhel)  are 
very  heavy.  I  am  obliged  to  visit  him  every  day,  early 
in  the  morning;  and  when  he  or  any  of  his  children,  or 
any  of  the  inmates  of  his  harem,  are  indisposed  I  dare 
not  quit  Cairo  [a  mile  and  a  half  from  his  home  at 
Fostat],  and  must  stay  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
day  in  the  palace.  It  also  frequently  happens  that  one 
or  two  of  the  royal  officers  fall  sick,  and  I  must  attend 
to  their  healing.  Hence,  as  a  rule,  I  repair  to  Cairo 
very  early  in  the  day,  and  even  if  nothing  unusual  hap- 
pens I  do  not  return  to  Fostat  until  the  afternoon.  Then 
I  am  almost  dying  with  hunger.  I  find  the  ante-cham- 
ber filled  with  people,  both  Jews  and  Gentiles,  nobles 
and  common  people,  judges  and  bailiffs,  friends 
and  foes — a  mixed  multitude,  who  await  the  time  of 
my  return. 

I  dismount  from  my  animal,  wash  my  hands,  go  forth 
to  my  patients,  and  entreat  them  to  bear  with  me  while  I 
partake  of  some  slight  refreshment,  the  only  meal  I  take 
in  the  twenty-four  hours.  Then  I  attend  to  my  patients, 
write  prescriptions  and  directions  for  their  various  ail- 
ments. Patients  go  in  and  out  until  nightfall,  and  some- 
times even,  I  solemnly  assure  you,  until  two  hours  and 
more  in  the  night.  I  converse  with  and  prescribe  for 
them  while  lying  down  from  sheer  fatigue,  and  when 
night  falls  am  so  exhausted  that  I  can  scarcely  speak." 

Maimuni's 
Critics. 

But  greatness   often  brings  enmity.     It  .has   already 


MAIMUNISTS  AND  ANTI-MAIMUNISTS  20I 

been  stated  that  the  office  of  Exilarch  (Resh  Gelutha)  at 
Babylonia  and  that  of  Gaon  of  the  Academy  had  passed 
away  (p.  43).  But  they  were  revived  again  in  Bagdad. 
In  Maimuni's  day  one  Samuel  ben  AH  held  the  double 
post.  He  was  a  man  of  the  Korah  type  (Numbers  xvi), 
caring  more  for  the  dazzle  of  office  than  for  its  obliga- 
tions. He  chafed  at  seeing  all  this  allegiance  paid  to 
Maimonides  and  endeavored  to  divert  it  to  himself  by 
discrediting  the  "J^^^ish  Aristotle,"  as  some  admirers 
styled  the  author  of  "The  Guide."  First  he  pointed  out 
mistakes  in  the  Mishna  commentary  and  then  accused 
Maimuni  of  heresy  because  of  his  views  on  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  body.  Ben  AH  was  endorsed  by  many  sincere 
Jews  who  honestly  believed  these  advanced  views  men- 
aced Judasim. 

Maimuni  answered  his  critics  in  a  magnanimous  spirit, 
but  his  response  did  not  convince  them  all.  It  was  not 
the  age  when  men  sought  rational  explanation  for  reli- 
gious duties.  He  who,  like  Maimonides,  dared  to  bring 
all  questions  to  the  bar  of  reason,  walked  a  thorny  path. 
So  we  find  that  even  Moslems  feared  the  "Guide,"  too, 
just  because  it  was  so  rational.  Such  was  the  time  when 
people  trusted  the  mysterious  rather  than  the  plain.  It 
was  in  enlightened  Spain  and  the  French  Provence  where 
Maimonides  found  his  chief  allies  and  sympathetic  inter- 
preters. It  was  there  where  his  "Guide  to  the  Per- 
plexed" was  translated  into  Hebrew  and  given  circu- 
lation. 

The  last  drops  in  life's  cup  were  bitter.  Overworked, 
censured  and  sick,  he  experienced  the  supreme  woe — 
loss  of  children ;  only  one  survived  him.  He  saw,  too, 
in  his  last  years,  Egypt  disturbed  by  political  faction 
and  ravaged  by  pestilence  and  famine. 


202  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

So,  when  in  1204  the  end  came  in  his  70th  year,  he 
may  have  hailed  the  merciful  release. 

The  carping  voice  of  criticism  was  hushed  indeed  when 
the  calamity  came.  There  was  mourning  and  fasting 
throughout  all  the  Jewish  settlements  of  the  world. 
Verily,  "a  prince  and  a  great  man  had  fallen  that  day  in 
Israel."     Verily,  "the  ark  of  God  was  taken." 

Opponents  of 
Rationalism. 

The  opposition  awakened  by  the  March  Nehuchim 
continued  after  the  author's  death  and  divided  Israel  into 
two  classes — Maimunists  and  Anti-Maimunists.  But  we 
cannot  hold  him  responsible  for  the  division.  We  have 
seen  that  two  parties,  a  progressive  and  a  conservative, 
nearly  always  existed  in  Judaism.  The  "Guide"  only 
presented  a  new  point  of  departure. 

There  was  always  a  class  that  interpreted  religion 
narrowly,  who  looked  upon  secular  learning  with  sus- 
picion. They  regarded  philosophy  as  the  door  leading 
to  unbelief.  Sometimes  it  does,  but  for  a  Bachya  or  an 
Ibn  Daud  it  leads  to  deeper  belief  (pp.  84,  in).  Blind 
faith  has  its  pitfalls,  too.  Some  of  the  opponents  of  the 
Moreh  harbored  some  superstitions,  and  held  rather 
gross  concepts  of  God  and  the  future.  Here  we  face 
one  of  the  dilemmas  of  life. 

Yet  we  can  well  see  that  Maimonides'  philosophy  of 
Judaism  would  not  satify  all  religious  needs,  apart  from 
the  question  of  culture  or  liberality.  His  reconciliation 
of  religion  and  philosophy  was  not  quite  convincing.  Im- 
mortality was  too  shadowy  to  be  satisfying;  prophecy 
was  exalted,  but  its  presentation  was  not  warm  enough 
to  make  human  appeal.    Nor  were  all  content  to  interpret 


MAIMUNISTS  AND  ANTI-MAI  M  UN  ISTS  203 

the  ceremonial  law  as  the  temporary  expression  of  eternal 
principles. 

The  anti-Maimon  forces,  Obsciiraiitisls,  i.  e.,  those  who 
portrayed  beliefs  in  mystical  terms,  were  led  by  Solomon 
of  Montpelier,  of  Northern  France  ;  the  Rationalists  by 
the  aged  David  Kimchi  of  Sonthern  France  (p.  142). 
The  conflict  began  with  excommunications  on  l)oth  sides, 
and  it  soon  spread  through  all  the  Jewish  centres  of 
Europe.  Letters  were  exchanged,  meetings  were  called. 
Nachmanides,  of  whom  we  shall  hear  later,  tried  to  elTect 
a  compromise,  but  failed. 

Bigotry's 

Demgerous  Consequences. 

If  the  conflict  had  been  confined  within  the  ranks  of 
Israel,  the  charges  and  countercharges,  and  even  the 
recriminations  might  have  been  stimulating.  But  when 
men  are  roused  on  questions  of  belief  they  become  very 
intense  and  at  times  very  bitter.  So  when  Solomon  of 
Montpelier  went  to  the  Dominican  monks  (who  were  be- 
ginning the  practice  of  burning  heretics)  in  order  to 
enlist  their  bigotry  on  his  side  against  his  own  brethren, 
he  crossed  the  line  of  conscientious  opposition  and  be- 
came an  unintentional  traitor.  But  this  very  act  broughr 
the  conflict  to  a  chmax  and  once  more  united  all  Israel 
for  the  common  cause  and  against  Solomon's  dangerous 
ally.  The  betrayers  were  repudiated  and  punished.  So, 
while  Israel  '-ont'.nued  to  be  divided  into  Maimunists  and 
Anti-IMaixiiun'sts  and  while  occasionally  feeling  ran  high, 
henceforth  all  differences  were  kept  within  the  conflnes 
of  Jewry. 

When,  in  1242,  an  attack  was  made  on  the  Talmud 
by  monkish  opponents,  the  chief  offender  of  the  Anti- 
Maimunist  party,  Jonah  Gerundi,  seeing  the  mischief  pro- 


204  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

duced  by  this  appeal  to  the  Benedictines,  made  a  pilgrim- 
age of  penance  and  a  public  repentance  in  the  synagogue. 
This  did  more  than  anything  else  to  reconcile  the  oppos- 
ing parties. 

As  the  years  passed  by  opposition  to  Maimonides  grad- 
ually died  away.  In  a  much  later  day  the  "Moreh"  was 
accepted  by  the  Conservative,  and  Maimonides'  "Thirteen 
Articles"  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  official  creed  of 
orthodox  Judaism. 

Notes  and  References. 

Jews  and  Medicine: 

Jews  maintained  pre-eminence  in  medicine  throughout 
the  Middle  Ages.  Their  physicians  were  at  the  same 
time  surgeons.  The  fact  that  Shechita  (Jewish  method 
of  slaughtering  animals  for  food)  involved  some  knowl- 
edge of  anatomy  and  of  diseases  of  the  blood  may  in  part 
explain  why  many  renowned  rabbis  were  also  renowned 
doctors.  A  Jewish  school  of  medicine  existed  at  Lunel 
which  flooded  Southern  France  with  its  physicians. 
Some  taught  in  Montpelier  by  consent  of  the  faculty. 
That  Christians  were  often  forbidden,  under  threat  of 
excommunication,  to  consult  Jewish  practitioners  or  even 
to  use  their  medicines,  tells  us  indirectly  how  widely  they 
must  have  been  sought.  Such  prohibitory  laws,  indeed, 
were  more  honored  in  the  breach  than  in  the  observance. 
Many  a  pope  publicly  discountenanced  the  use  of  Jewish 
doctors  and  privately  engaged  them  for  his  own  ailments. 

Finally,  in  1341,  a  Church  Synod  at  Avignon  had  to 
remove  the  ban  against  Jewish  doctors  out  of  regard  for 
the  public  health.  Even  convents  were  now  placed  under 
the  care  of  Jewish  physicians. 

Among  the  monarchs  who  engaged  Jewish  doctors  in 
the  Middle  Ages  we  may  mention  Hugh  Capet  of  France ; 
Charles,  the  Bald,  Henry  HI  and  IV,  Alphonso  XI  of 
Castile;  Christian  IV,  of  Denmark;  Emperor  Frederick 
III,  and  Queen  Maria  de  Medici,  of  France. 


MAIMUNISTS  AND  ANTI-MAIMTTNISTS  20^ 

Maitnonides  as  Physician: 

Dr.  John  Young,  of  Glasgow,  in  an  article  on  "Jewish 
Mediciners,"  has  this  to  say  of  the  medical  writings  of 
Maimonides.  "They  are  most  interesting  for  their  dis- 
cusson  of  tubercle  and  lung  affections.  His  popular 
treatise  on  poisons  is  full  of  practical  instruction,  rich  in 
remedies — his  abridgements  of  Galen  and  his  extracts 
from  Hypocrates  (classic  masters  of  medicine)  show 
wide  reading.  His  treatise  on  the  preservation  of  health 
combined  physical  and  moral  precepts." 

Dr.  Young  also  writes  appreciatively  of  Isaac,  the 
Jew,  who  in  the  loth  century  wrote  a  guide  to  physicians 
which  will  bear  perusal  now.  Here  are  some  extracts 
from  it:  "Think  well  of  simple  remedies."  "Most  patients 
recover  by  the  aid  of  nature  without  the  physician's  aid." 
"H  you  have  a  choice  between  the  nutritive  means  and 
drugs,  use  the  former." 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

In  judging  others  beware  of  calling  rationalists  right 
and  mystics  wrong,  or  vice  versa.  Both  may  be  right 
from  different  points  of  view.  It  is  not  a  matter  of 
truth,  but  of  temperament. 


2o6  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

CHAPTER     XXII. 
TOLERATION  DECLINES  IN  THE  PENINSULA. 

Portugal. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  Spanish  Peninsula  in  general, 
but  not  of  Portugal  in  particular.  Like  Castile  and 
Aragon,  it  was  first  Moslem ;  and  the  Jews  settled  in 
it  about  the  same  time  as  they  settled  in  the  neighbor- 
ing Peninsular  countries.  We  hear  little  of  the  Jews  of 
Portugal  till  it  was  conquered  by  Alfonso  Henriques,  a 
Castilian,  in  1139 — four  years  after  Maimonides  was 
born.  As  in  the  Spanish  Christian  Kingdoms,  the  early 
kings  followed  the  enlightened  Moorish  precedent  in 
their  treatment  of  the  Jews.  Here,  too,  they  were  ap- 
pointed to  posts  of  honor,  such  as  Ahnoxarifcs,  receivers 
of  customs,  and  farmers  of  taxes,  for  which  some  Jews 
seemed  peculiarly  fitted. 

Somewhat  later  fanatic  devotees  of  the  Church  be- 
gan to  dictate  a  policy  of  repression  ;  still  toleration  lin- 
gered here  longer  than  in  Spain.  Its  kings  creditably 
resisted  the  harsh  edicts  of  Innocent  III,  Gregory  IX 
and  their  bigoted  followers  against  the  building  of  syna- 
gogues and  the  appointing  of  Jews  as  tax-farmers.  They 
also  continued  to  excuse  them  from  wearing  the  obnox- 
ious badge,  on  the  payment  of  tithes. 

Alfonso  III,  who  came  to  the  throne  in  1246,  was  a 
particularly  doughty  champion  of  Israel.  He  regulated 
their  affairs  and  continued  to  grant  them  a  more  decided 
autonomy  than  was  conceded  by  any  other  European 
land.  Right  up  to  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century 
their  affairs  were  left  entirely  in  their  own  hands.     The 


TOLERATIOM   DECLINES    IN   THE   PENINSULA  20/ 

head  of  the  community  was  styled  "rahbi  mor."  His 
post  by  royal  appointment  was  civil  as  well  as  religious. 
Within  this  small  realm  he  had  as  much  power  as  a  Baby- 
lonian Resh  Gelutha ;  he  administered  justice,  issued  de- 
crees and  made  an  annual  circuit  to  investigate  all  the 
communities,  accompanied  by  a  large  staff  of  officials  and" 
attendants.  The  rabbi  of  each  of  the  seven  provinces 
into  which  Portugal  was  divided  was  subject  to  him. 
These  rabbis,  whose  appointment  was  confirmed  by  the 
king,  were  not  only  religious  authorities  but  were  also 
local  Jewish  governors,  with  power  to  judge  and  impose 
punishment  in  criminal  cases'.  From  this  it  will  be  un- 
derstood that  the  Jews  lived  in  separate  quarters,  called 
"Juderias."     But  this  was  true  of  Spain  also. 

Castile. 

To  return  to  Spain.  The  story  of  the  Christian  half 
of  Spain,  so  far  told,  was  carried  down  to  the  dawn  of 
the  thirteenth  century ;  we  saw  it  for  a  while  even  more 
tolerant  than  Moslem  Spain.  For  it  received  refugees 
from  the  persecution  of  the  Almohades,  which  drove 
the  family  of  Maimonides  to  Africa. 

Castile  became  the  largest  and  most  powerful  Spanish 
State  after  Ferdinand  III  had  united  it  with  Leon  and 
conquered  Cordova  and  Seville,  about  1220.  But,  al- 
though the  Jews  had  fought  patriotically  for  this,  their 
country,  the  clergy  were  beginning  to  fan  the  bigotry 
of  the  populace  against  them.  Ferdinand,  who  would 
like  to  have  converted  them,  was  yet  just  and  kind.  He 
confirmed  all  their  rights,  and  they  mourned  his  death 
in  Hebrew  elegy. 

While  Alfonso  X  was  the  Infante  (heir  to  the  throne), 
Jews  had  fought  under  his  banner.  As  king  he  was 
styled  "The  Wise."     He  discriminated  in  favor  of  the 


208  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

Jews  against  the  Moslems — giving  them  their  mosques 
for  synagogues.  The  age  was  hardly  broad  enough  for 
the  Jews  to  decline  them.  But,  then,  both  mosques  and 
synagogues  were  all  to  become  churches  in  the  end.  As 
throughout  the  Peninsula,  Jews  were  appointed  as  State 
secretaries  and  treasurers,  though  not  without  popish 
rebuke.  Such  appointments  implied  probity  of  character 
as  well  as  ability  in  finance. 

This  learned  king  desired  to  foster  for  his  country  a 
literature  and  to  promote  natural  science.  He,  therefore, 
turned  to  the  scholars  of  his  realm — the  Jews  and  their 
Arab  followers. 

The  Jews'  knowledge  of  Arabic  singled  them  out  as 
Dragomen  (interpreters)  and  as  translators.  Treatises 
on  the  Quadrant,  on  quicksilver,  books  on  the  properties 
of  metals  and  precious  stones  were  turned  into  the  ver- 
nacular ;  also  at  Alphonso's  request,  portions  of  the  Tal- 
mud and  Kabala.  They  compiled,  too,  for  him  a  his- 
tory of  the  world.  So  the  development  of  this  Spanish 
Castilian  literature  is  largely  due  to  the  Jews. 

But  their  most  notable  translations  were  of  works  on 
astronomy.  Don  Zag,  a  synagogue  reader,  who  was  a 
famous  astronomer,  was  engaged  to  draw  up  astronom- 
ical tables.  We  shall  hear  of  these  "Tables  of  Alfonso" 
in  connection  with  the  discovery  of  America.  Samuel 
Halevi  invented  a  water-clock  for  this  king.  In  his  reign 
the  Jews  of  Toledo  built  the  largest  and  most  beautiful 
synagogue  in  Spain. 

New  Laws  and 
New  Taxes. 

But  what  is  more  capricious  than  the  favor  of  princes? 
Because  Don  Zag  surrendered  the  public  monies  to  the 
Infante  Don  Sancho,  he  was  executed  and  the  Jewish 


TOLERATION   DECLINES   IN   THE   PENINSULA  209 

community  fined  12.000  gold  marevedis.  Next,  the  per- 
sistent nagging  of  the  Church,  Uke  continuous  dropping 
of  water  on  a  stone,  had  its  uhimate  effect  in  creating  dis- 
crimination against  the  Jews.  So,  in  his  code  of  laws, 
Alfonso,  wise  though  he  was,  was  cajoled  into  adopting 
against  them  laws  that  carried  protection  in  one  clause 
and  menace  in  another.     Here  are  some  provisions : 

Jews  may  keep  their  present  synagogues,  but  may 
build  no  new  ones. 

Christianity  was  not  to  be  forced  upon  them;  but 
acceptance  of  Judaism  by  a  Christian  was  to  be 
punished  by  death. 

They  were  not  to  be  summoned  to  a  court  on  Jew- 
ish festivals ;  but  they  must  not  appear  abroad  on 
Christian  festivals. 

These  laws  did  not  go  into  effect  till  a  later  day ;  but 
their  formulation  facilitated  their  eventual  enforcement. 

In  1281.  three  years  before  his  father's  death,  Sancho 
IV  assumed  the  throne.  By  acquiring  Andalusia  for 
Castile,  the  flower  of  the  Jewish  community  was  brought 
under  its  sway  and  was  made  to  feel  the  burden  of  heavy 
taxation. 

In  the  Christian  part  of  the  Peninsula,  a  custom  pre- 
vailed that  found  no  counterpart  in  the  Moslem  half. 
It  was  the  imposition — in  addition  to  regular  taxes — of 
a  special  annual  payment,  by  each  Jew,  of  thirty  dineros 
(a  local  coin)  in  remembrance  of  the  thirty  pieces  of 
silver  paid  to  Judas  Iscariot  for  the  betrayal  of  Jesus. 
No  custom  could  better  have  been  instituted  to  keep  alive 
prejudice  and  fan  fanaticism. 

Otherwise  all  seemed  well.  The  clergy  was  sullen 
but  restrained.  The  Dominicans  bided  their  time.  In 
the  security  of  the  hour,  Israel  continued  to  take  heart 


2IO  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

in  furthering  literary  and  religious  culture.  They  were 
thoroughly  Spanish  in  language  and  custom.  They  held 
important  posts.  They  were  rich  in  money  and  land ; 
nor  did  they  hide  their  wealth.  But  they  did  not  see 
the  cloud,  "no  bigger  than  a  man's  hand,"  forming  on 
the  horizon  of  Castile. 

Aragon. 

Aragon  took  a  step  nearer  to  the  less  tolerant  stand- 
ards of  the  rest  of  Christendom.  Its  monarchs,  follow- 
ing the  German  precedent,  came  to  regard  the  Jews 
as  theirs,  with  right  to  mulct  at  pleasure,  though  it  was 
rarely  indulged.  In  some  towns  they  were  confined  to 
the  leper  quarter.  Yet.  here  as  in  Castile,  they  thor- 
oughly identified  themselves  with  the  country,  spoke  its 
language  and  followed  its  customs.  Their  occupations 
were  varied.  For  while  a  few  distinguished  themselves 
in  finance,  the  bulk  were  engaged  in  agriculture,  viticul- 
ture and  general  handicrafts. 

While  Ferdinand  III  was  reigning  in  Castile,  James  I 
was  reigning  in  Aragon.  Both  were  contemporaries  of 
Pope  Innocent  III,  but  it  was  only  James  who  yielded  to 
his  demand  to  impose  the  badge,  ordered  by  the  Fourth 
Lateran  Council  in  121 5.  The  Jews  protested,  but  in 
vain.  No  doubt  this  was  due  to  Raymond  de  Penyaforte, 
general  of  the  Dominican  order,  and  the  king's  confessor, 
who  induced  his  royal  master  to  do  penance  for  his  sins 
by  the  humiliation  of  the  official  enemies  of  the  Church. 
Yet  the  Jews  could  not  have  regarded  James  I  as  an 
unkind  king,  for  they  mourned  his  death,  which  occurred 
in  1276.  His  successor,  Pedro  III,  exempted  some  Jews 
from  wearing  the  badge  and  also  confirmed  the  rights  the 
Jews  still  retained. 


■i'()Li:kati()N  declines  in  ttik  peninsula         211 

Solomon  ben 
Adret. 

The  Spanish  outlook  then  was  not  as  bright  in  external 
relations.  How  fared  their  internal  relations  among 
themselves?     They  were  changing,  too. 

It  was  in  Barcelona  that  Rabbi  Solomon  ben  Adrct, 
known  by  his  initials  Rashba,  was  born,  in  the  year  1235. 
He  was  not  the  type  of  Spanish  scholar  we  have  so  fcr 
been  accustomed  to  meet.  He  was  not  a  philosopher, 
scientist  or  poet,  but  a  Talmudist.  Yet  a  man  of  broader 
culture  than  the  average  German  rabbinic  scholar.  Still 
Germany  would  have  been  his  more  congenial  atmos- 
phere. 

He  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  official  head  in  Jewry 
and  a  leading  authority  on  Jewish  law.  Questions  came 
to  him  from  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  Jewish  world — 
from  Italy,  Africa  and  from  distant  Asia  Minor.  His 
replies  to  these,  i.  e.,  his  Rcsponsa,  numbering  some  three 
thousand,  show  breadth  of  view,  wide  reading  and  deep 
thought,  as  well  as  Talmudic  erudition.  They  became 
important  additions  to  the  steadily  growing  code  of  Jew- 
ish law  and  practise.  All  communities  gladly  accepted 
his  suggestions,  and  throngs  of  disciples  from  distant 
lands  came  to  sit  at  his  feet.  That  Spain  should  become 
the  centre  of  rahhinic  learning  shows  the  gradual  modifi- 
cation in  their  literary  and  theological  interests. 

This  "rabbi  of  Spain,"  as  he  was  called,  was  a  man 
of  irreproachable  integrity  and  strong  personality.  His 
popularity  was  also  due  to  his  being  such  a  staunch 
champion  of  Israel  maligned.  For  example,  some  Do- 
minican monks  studied  Hebrew  only  that  they  might 
better  attack  Judaism — so  painstaking  is  antagonism 
sometimes.  One  of  these,  Raymond  Martin,  wrote  two 
books  to  prove  Christianity  from  Jewish  Scripture  and 


212  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

Talmud.  Rashba  was  ready  with  dignified  and  tem- 
perate replies.  None  the  less  later  enemies  of  Israel 
made  eager  use  of  Martin's  arguments  and  ignored 
Rashba. 

He  also  defended  Judaism  against  a  Mohammedan 
criticism. 

Maimonides  had  now  been  dead  half  a  century,  but 
the  conflict  still  raged  around  his  philosophy  of  Judaism. 
It  was  now  no  longer  a  conflict  against  the  "Guide  to 
the  Perplexed"  in  particular,  but  against  all  secular  study 
in  general  and  especially  philosophy.  Rashba  entered 
the  struggle  and  sought  peace  through  compromise,  but 
his  sympathies  were  not  with  the  rationalists.  So  in 
1305,  a  century  after  Maimonides'  death,  Rashba  issued 
a  ban  against  all  (except  medical  students)  who  studied 
science  and  philosophy  before  their  thirtieth  year. 

Verily,  rationalism  within  as  well  as  toleration  without 
were  steadily  receding  tides  in  Spain. 

Notes  and  References. 
Tax-farmng: 

It  was  an  ancient  custom  and  one  still  prevalent  in  the 
East,  where  taxes  are  hard  and,  at  times,  impossible  to 
collect,  to  single  out  a  man  able  and  reliable  to  undertake 
the  task,  giving  him  military  aid  and  full  power.  He 
guarantees  a  sum  to  the  king,  who  troubles  himself  about 
the  matter  no  further,  and  then  proceeds  to  collect  the 
taxes  as  best  he  can.  If  successful  the  profits  are  large. 
Jews  were  often  engaged  for  the  purpose,  but  the  wealth 
acquired  was  occasionally  a  menace  rather  than  an  ad- 
vantage. 

Navarre: 

Navarre,  classed  as  a  Spanish  province,  really  belonged 
to  France,  and  v/as  permeated  by  the  French  spirit  of 
persecution;  a  Jewish  massacre  occurred  in  1328.  When 


TOLERATION  DECLINES  IN  THE  PENINSULA  21  3 

it  became   a   separate   kingdom,   the  Jewish   status  was 
somewhat  improved. 

Rationalists  and  Obscurantists: 

Solomon  Petit  of  Accho,  who  led  the  anti-Maimunist 
party  of  Germany  and  France,  put  the  Moreh  under  the 
ban,  and  persuaded  the  Rabbi  of  Accho  to  burn  it  as  a 
heretical  work.  Nor  was  he  moved  from  his  position 
by  the  Jews  of  the  East,  who  endorsed  Maimonides,  and 
who  had  re-established  the  office  of  Resh  Gclutha  for  a 
while.  With  the  further  opposition  of  Italy  under  the 
leadership  of  Hillel  of  Verona,  Petit's  project  was  de- 
feated. But  the  cause  was  again  taken  up  by  one  Abba 
Mari  of  Montpelier,  the  home  of  the  less  liberal,  and  the 
opponents  of  rationalism  gained  the  day. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

Was  the  diversion  of  Spanish  interest  from  poetry 
and  philosophy  to  theology  and  law  progressive  or  retro- 
gressive? 


214  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL      JEWS 

CHAPTER    XXIII. 

NACHMANIDES  AND  "THE  DISPUTATION." 

We  have  now  to  tell  of  another  scholar  of  the  Spanish 
school — Nachmanides.  It  was  he  who  took  the  leading 
part  in  the  famous  Disputation  under  King  James  I  of 
Aragon.  Moses  ben  Nachman  Gerundi,  known  also  by 
his  initials  Ra  M  Ba  N,  was  born  in  the  year  1194  in 
Gerona,  some  sixty  miles  from  Barcelona,  the  home  of 
Rashba,  whose  pupil  he  may  have  been.  In  studying 
the  latter  we  noticed  that  his  life-work  was  not  character- 
istic of  the  Spanish  school,  noted  for  the  versatility  of  its 
literary  interests  and  the  breadth  of  its  views.  The  dis- 
tinction is  almost  as  marked  in  Nachmanides  ;  though  liv- 
ing in  Spain,  he  really  belonged  to  the  school  of  Northern 
France  and  Germany. 

The  Mystic  versus 
The  Logician. 

Born  a  decade  before  Maimonides'  death,  the  two  men 
stand  at  opposite  poles.  Rambam  was  a  rationalist,  Ram- 
ban  a  mystic.  The  former  was  reached  through  his  rea- 
son, the  latter  through  his  emotions.  Maimonides 
sought  to  prove  Judaism,  Nachmanides  accepted  it  un- 
questionably. Even  the  teachings  of  the  Talmud  and  the 
Geonim  he,  like  Rashi,  received  in  the  same  trustful 
spirit.  Here  was  a  man  of  faith,  reverently  bowing  to  the 
authority  of  the  past.  "Be  ours  the  duty,"  he  might  have 
said,  "but  to  sit  at  the  feet  of  the  scholars  of  old,  not  to 
criticise  their  teachings,  but  only  to  expound  them." 

So  his  theory  of  the  universe  was  in  strong  contrast 


NACiiMANii)i-:s  AN'i)  "'I'm-:  nisi'iriATioN  215 

with  that  of  Maimuni.  The  world  for  him  is  not  gov- 
erned by  hiw,  but  by  separate  acts  of  divine  will.  He 
not  only  believed  in  miracles,  but  they  were  vital  to  his 
conception  of  Providence.  He  believed  in  evil  spirits,  in 
the  transmigration  of  the  soul  and  that  all  knowledge  was 
hidden  in  the  Torah. 

His  Human  Side. 

Yet  withal,  he  was  a  man  of  broad  erudition  who  took 
a  profoimd  view  of  life  and  felt  its  grandeur.  He  was 
a  physician  as  well  as  an  expounder  of  the  Talmud  and 
deserved  the  posts  of  rabbi  and  chief  rabbi  to  which  he 
was  respectively  called. 

He  is  nearer  to  us  than  Maimonides  because  he  is 
more  sweetly  human.  While  the  former  advocated  an 
exalted  philosophic  calm  to  meet  the  adversities  of  life, 
Nachmanides  bids  us  give  natural  outlet  to  joy  and  sor- 
row without  stoic  reserve.  He  further  taught  that  we 
should  gratify,  though  temjierately,  our  human  capacity 
for  joy,  not  as  a  concession  to  lower  nature,  but  as  ful- 
fillment of  the  divine  benevolent  purpose  in  the  creation 
of  such  capacity.  This  was  of  the  very  spirit  of  Judaism 
which  discouraged  asceticism  and  only  tolerated  the 
Nazarite. 

We  may  infer,  then,  that  such  a  man  who,  though  he 
shunned  Aristotle  as  he  would  shun  evil,  would,  on  the 
other  hand,  be  hardly  likely  to  agree  with  the  obscurant- 
ists (p.  203).  After  all,  he  was  too  much  of  a  Spaniard 
to  sanction  ignorance  or  endorse  blind  belief.  H  he 
bowled  to  the  Halacha,  he  accepted  the  Agada  as  Agada — 
i.  e.,  for  what  it  was,  metaphor,  homily,  picture. 

What  part,  then,  did  he  take  in  the  Maimunist-anti- 
Maimunistic  struggle  ?  He  sided  with  the  latter,  it  is  true. 
He  disapproved  of  the  "Guide  to  the  Perplexed,"  but  not 


2l6  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

of  Maimonides.  He  suggested,  therefore,  as  a  compromise, 
that  only  this  work  be  put  under  the  ban  (on  the  "Index 
Expurgatorium,"  as  the  Church  hath  it),  but  that  no  bar 
be  placed  against  the  study  of  Maimonides'  "Yod"  (sum- 
mary of  Jewish  Law),  even  though  it  contained  some 
philosophic  teachings.  But  the  compromise  failed  to  sat- 
isfy either  party.  It  involved,  in  fact,  a  difference  funda- 
mental in  human  nature.  If  men  would  only  realize  that 
God  has  not  constructed  our  minds  to  think  alike  on  all 
things,  and  therefore  that  we  should  respect  each  other's 
differences,  we  then  might  realize,  too,  that  truth  can  be 
viewed  from  varied  points  of  view. 

The  "Disputation." 

But  however  divided  Israel  may  have  been  within  its 
owns  ranks  on  divergent  questions  of  Jewish  belief,  as 
against  the  Creed  of  the  Church,  it  presented  a  united 
front.  So  Nachmani  deserved  and  won  the  approval  of 
all  parties  for  the  dignified  defense  of  Judaism  in  the 
Barcelona   disputation   in    1263,   now   to   be   considered. 

These  public  theological  arguments  convinced  none, 
added  nothing  to  the  cause  of  truth,  and  injured  instead 
of  furthering  the  spirit  of  religion.  For  our  beliefs  are 
not  the  results  of  philosophic  deduction  and  cold  analysis. 
We  reach  faith  through  the  heart  rather  than  through  the 
mind,  and  religion  finally  finds  expression  in  terms  of  life. 
In  fact,  these  particular  disputations  arranged  by  the 
Church,  and  in  which  Jews  were  forced  to  take  part,  were 
really  a  species  of  Jewish  persecution  in  disguise ;  for, 
being  a  helpless  minority,  it  was  more  perilous  for  them 
to  win  than  to  lose.  The  discussion  usually  centered 
around  the  question  as  to  whether  Christian  doctrine  was 
contained  in  Jewish  Scripture. 

This  particular  disputation  was  put  on  foot  by  Pablo 


NACIIMANIDKS  AND      THE  DISPUTATION  2\'J 

Christiani,  an  apostate  from  Judaism,  one  of  a  class  that 
almost  did  as  much  harm  to  Israel  as  Christian  fanatics. 
He  induced  Raymond  dc  Penyaforte,  head  of  the  Domini- 
can Order,  to  arrange  this  puhlic  discussion  between  him- 
self and  Nachmanides,  hoping  to  discomfort  his  former 


DISPUTATION 


co-religionists  by  his  intimate  knowledge  of  their  litera- 
ture and  their  current  views. 

Nachmani  had  no  choice  but  to  respond  to  the  summons 
to  appear  before  King  James  in  the  palace  where  the  dis- 
cussion was  to  take  place.  He  but  asked  perfect  freedom 
of  speech,  which  the  well-disposed  monarch  readily 
granted.  On  the  whole,  the  controversy  was  conducted 
in  a  scholarly  spirit  and  lasted  four  days.     In  the  course 


2l8  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

of  the  discussion   Nachniani  lirought  out  the    followin;^ 
points : 

1st.  The  coming  of  the  Messiah  around  which  the 
discussion  waged  has  not  the  doctrinal  importance  for  the 
Jew  that  it  has  for  the  Christian.  ( To  the  latter  he  is  a 
Saviour  and  Divinity,  to  the  former  a  human  king.) 

2nd.  The  Talmudic  Agada,  on  which  the  apostate  ex- 
pected to  score  most  of  his  points,  were  only  homilies, 
moral  lessons,  parables,  ideas  of  God's  dealing  told  in 
simple  metaphors',  and  therefore  they  carried  no  authcjr- 
ity  of  doctrine  or  of  law. 

3rd.     As  the  merit  of  religious  fidelity  is  proportioned 
to  the  sacrifice  entailed,  therefore  it  was  more  meritori 
ous,  just  because  it  was  harder  for  the  Jews  to  live  loy- 
ally to  their  faith  und(?r  a  Christian  ruler  than  under  their 
own   Messiah  in   their  own  land. 

It  ended  as  all  such  contests  must — without  result. 
Nachmani  had  the  better  of  the  argument  and  was  com- 
plimented and  even  rewarded  by  the  fair-minded  king 
for  the  intellectual  skill  and  self-restraint  he  had  dis- 
played. But  the  persistent  Dominicans  obtained  the  royal 
permission  to  send  Pablo  as  a  missionary  to  all  the  Jew- 
ish communities  in  Christian  Spain,  where  they  were  to 
be  forced  to  listen  to  arguments  against  Judaism  and  to 
pay  his  expenses  to  boot.  The  apostate  preacher  attacked 
the  Talmud  and  so  exaggerated  its  less  tolerant  passages 
as  to  induce  the  Pope  to  issue  a  "bull"  (edict)  against  it. 
All  passages  considered  undesirable  by  the  Church  were 
now  erased:  This  was  the  beginning  of  censorship — an- 
other form  of  persecution ;  censoring  the  Talmud  was 
occasionally  more  mischievous  than  burning  it. 

Nachtnanides 
Banished.  « 

To  offset  the  virulent  preaching  of  Pablo,  Nachmani 


NACIIMANIDES  AND      THE  DISPUTATION  219 

circulated  a  complete  account  of  the  Disputation  among 
his  brethren.  The  Dominicans  had  his  pamphlet  burnt ; 
and,  not  succeeding  in  having  the  author  burnt,  too,  in- 
duced the  reluctant  king  to  exile  the  aged  scholar.  So 
ultimately  the  argument,  as  in  all  those  disputations,  went 
in  favor  of  those  in  power. 

Weighted  with  his  seventy  years,  Nachmani  had  to 
tear  himself  from  his  family,  leave  his  native  land  and 
become  a  wanderer.  With  something  of  Jehuda  Halevi's 
love  for  Zion,  he  turned  his  steps  to  the  Holy  Land. 
Alas !  he  found  Jerusalerti  in  ruins,  for  a  war  was  raging 
against  the  Eastern  Caliphate.  But  to  his  coreligionists 
there  his  presence  brought  new  life.  He  established  an 
academy  for  Jewish  study  and  students  crowded  about 
him.  He  brought  to  the  East  something  of  the  spirit  of 
Spanish  culture  and  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Bible 
to  acquaint  his  disciples  with  western  modes  of  biblical 
exposition.  Not  that  his  treatment  was  strictly  western, 
either — i.  e.,  if  western  meant  rationalistic.  He  believed 
that  the  Pentateuch  contained  all  wisdom ;  certainly  his 
commentary  on  it  contained  the  best  of  his.  It  contained 
his  philosophic  conclusions  as  well  as  his  mystic  fancies. 
But  it  was  the  latter  that  most  appealed  to  his  Oriental 
pupils.  He  was  fond  of  the  allegorical  interpretation  of 
Scripture,  especially  on  such  themes  that  invited  it.  as 
Creation,  the  Tree  of  Life;  these  gave  free  play  to  the 
imagination  and  encouraged  a  relaxation  of  the  discipline 
of  logical  thought.  Like  many  another  commentator,  he 
was  inclined  to  read  later  history  into  the  Scripture.  He 
also  wrote  extensively  on  the  Talmud. 

But  his  influence  on  his  surroundings  was  good  and 
wholesome,  due  as  much  to  his  winning  personality  as  to 
his  leai-n'ng.  So,  solaced  by  the  companionship  of  loyal 
friends,    he    passed    away    in   the    year    1270.      He    had 


220  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

awakened  in  the  hearts  of  many  of  his  western  brethren 
a  new  desire  to  visit  the  land  of  Israel. 

We  append  here  one  of  Nachmani's  liturgical  poems,  a 
hymn  for  the  New  Year : 

My  King. 

Ere  time  began,  ere  age  to  age  had  thrilled, 
I  waited  in  His  storehouse,  as  He  willed ; 
He  gave  me  being,  but,  my  eyes  fulfilled, 
I  shall  be  summoned  back  before  the  King. 

He  called  the  hidden  to  the  light  of  day. 
To  right  and  left,  each  side  the  fountain  lay. 
From  out  the  stream  and  down  the  steps,  the  way 
That  led  me  to  the  garden  of  the  King. 

Thou  gavest  me  a  light  my  path  to  guide, 
To  prove  my  heart's  recesses  still  untried ; 
And  as  I  went,  Thy  voice  in  warning  cried. 

"Child,  fear  thou  Him  who  is  thy  God  and  King!" 

True  weight  and  measure  learned  my  heart  from  Thee : 
H  blessings  follow,  then  what  joy  for  me! 
H  naught  but  sin,  all  mine  the  shame  must  be, 
For  that  was  not  determined  by  the  King. 

li  hasten,  trembling,  to  confess  the  whole 
Of  my  transgressions,  ere  I  reach  the  goal 
Where  mine  own  words  must  witness  'gainst  my  soul, 
And  who  dares  doubt  the  writing  of  the  King? 

Erring,  I  wandered  in  the  wilderness. 
In  passion's  grave  nigh  sinking  powerless : 
Now  deeply  I  repent,  in  sore  distress. 

That  I  kept  not  the  statutes  of  the  King! 

With  worldly  longings  was  my  bosom  fraught, 
Earth's  idle  toys  and  follies  all  I  sought': 
Ah,  when  He  judges  joys  so  dearly  bought, 
How  greatly  shall  I  fear  my  Lord  and  King! 


NACHMANIDES   AND   '"THL;   DISPUTATION'"  221 

Now  conscious-Stricken,  humbled  to  the  dust, 
Doubting  himself,  in  Thee  alone  his  trust, 
He  shrinks  in  terror  back,  for  God  is  just — 
How  can  a  sinner  hope  to  reach  the  King? 

Oh,  be  Thy  mercy  in  the  balance  laid, 

To  hold  Thy  servant's  sins  more  lightly  weighed, 

When,  his  confession  penitently  made, 

He  answers  for  his  guilt  before  the  King. 

Thine  is  the  love,  O  God,  and  Thine  the  grace, 
That  folds  the  sinner  in  its  mild  embrace : 
Thine  the  forgiveness  bridging  o'er  the  space 

'Twixt  man's  works  and  the  task  set  by  the  King. 

Unheeding  all  my  sins,  I  cling  to  Thee  ; 
I  know  that  mercy  will  Thy  footstool  be : 
Before  I  call,  O  do  Thou  answer  me, 

For  nothing  dare  I  claim  of  Thee,  my  King! 

O,  Thou  who  makest  guilt  to  disappear. 
My  help,  my  hope,  my  rock,  I  will  not  fear: 
Though  Thou  the  body  hold  in  dungeon  drear, 
The  soul  has  found  the  palace  of  the  King. 

Translated  by  Alice  Lucas. 

Notes  and  References. 

Studies  in  Judaism,  by  Dr.  S.  Schechter,  J.  P.  S.  of  A. 
In  article  on  Nachmanides,  he  writes:  "\i  he  was  not 
a  profound  thinker  like  Maimonides,  he  had  that  which 
is  next  best,  he  felt  profoundly."  From  a  letter  of  Nach- 
manides there  quoted,  p.  109,  we  get  an  insight  into  the 
condition  of  Jerusalem  at  this  time. 

Censorship: 

Graetz :  History  of  the  Jezvs;  translation,  vol.  iv,  pp. 
659-660. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

Why  was  it  more  dangerous  for  Jews  to  win  than  to 
lose  in  disputations  with  the  Church? 


222  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 


CHAPTER     XXIV. 

THE  RISE  OF  MYSTICISM. 

We  spoke  of  Nachnianides  as  a  mystic.  It  is  time  that 
we  consider  this  spirit  and  tendency,  for  we  have  now 
reached  a  new  rehgious  development  in  Israel,  new,  at 
least,  in  the  prominent  part  it  was  to  \Aay  in  medireval 
Judaism.  We  have  referred  more  than  once  to  the  two 
divisons,  in  which,  in  different  epochs,  the  i:)eople  were 
grouped — the  rationalist  appearing  at  times  as  Sadducee, 
Karaite  or  Alaimunist ;  the  conservative  either  as  Phari- 
see, Rabbanite,  or  anti-Maimunist.  Now  there  is  a  third 
attitude  of  religious  experience,  not  as  frequently  met, 
but  cjuite  as  legitimate — the  mystic. 

Mystics 

Good  and  Bad. 

Mysticism  may  be  expressed  as  the  idea  that  through 
his  emotions  rather  than  through  his  reason  man  com- 
munes with  God.  This  at  times  may  be  very  exalting. 
It  may  indicate  an  exquisite  expression  of  religion,  a  vivid 
consciousness  of  God,  a  yearning  to  come  near  to  Him, 
coupled  with  a  sense  of  the  divine  response  to  this  hu- 
man aspiration,  a  divine  willingness  to  be  nigh  to  His 
creatures.  This  is  Mysticism  at  its  best.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  may  lower  the  religious  standard.  Occasionally 
we  find  it  drifting  to  fantastic  and  heretical  extremes, 
fostering  the  most  crass  superstitions ;  mischievous,  dab- 
bling with  magic  ;  and,  again,  though  rarely,  even  con- 
fusing moral  distinctions.  This  is  Mysticism  at  its 
worst. 

Mysticism  as  such  had  existed  in  every  stage  of  Juda- 
ism.    We  meet  it  in  the  Psalms,  where  a  realization  of 


THE   RISE  OF   MYSTICISM  223 

God  is  in  itself  an  exalted  bliss.  We  meet  it  in  the  visions 
of  the  Apocrypha,  in  the  Midrashim  of  the  Talmud.  In 
no  age  is  it  altogether  absent,  and  no  philosophy  is  en- 
tirely untinged  by  it — for  we  even  discern  it  under  the 
rationalism  of  Maimonides. 

Kabala. 

But  the  particular  form  of  Mysticism  that  loomed  into 
prominence  around  the  thirteenth  century  is  called 
Kabala. 

The  word  Kabala  means  Tradition — a  long  accepted 
term  in  general  use  to  indicate  the  Oral  Law  as  dis- 
tinct from  the  Written  Law  of  Scripture,  presumed  to 
have  been  transmitted  to  IMoses  at  Mount  Sinai  and  then 
handed  dozvn  by  word  of  mouth  from  generation  to  gen- 
eration. It  was  now  used  in  a  new  sense  as  a  mystical 
secret  tradition,  also  transmitted  from  the  remote  past, 
but  supposed  to  have  been  revealed  only  to  a  chosen  few. 

Kabala  then  was  presented  in  the  form  of  a  mystic 
exposition  of  Scripture,  particularly  of  such  portions  as 
more  readily  lend  themselves  to  allegorical  interpretation. 
Such  were,  for  example,  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis,  the 
Creation,  of  a  theme  leading  to  all  sorts  of  speculation, 
the  visions  of  some  of  the  Prophets,  notably  Ezekiel's 
Vision  of  the  Chariot,  that  can  mean  so  many  things  ;  the 
Song  of  Songs,  that  may  indicate  the  relation  between 
God  and  Israel  beneath  the  love  story.  One  peculiarity 
of  Kabalistic  exposition  was  based  on  the  fact  that  the 
Hebrew  letters  are  also  the  Hebrew  numerals.  Two 
words  or  sentences  that  chanced  to  be  numerically  identi- 
fied were  presumed  to  have  subtle  relation  ;  i.e..  IH  ^\one 
(unity),  I  (  N)  8(  n  )  4  (  T)  makes  thirteen;  hence 
suggesting  the  age  at  which  a  boy  should  accept  the  law 
of  the  One  God — Bar  Mitzvah.     This  opened  the  door 


224  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

to  endless  new  Scriptural  deductions  and  gave  free  play 
to  the  imagination.  A  whole  philosophy  or  theosophy 
(knowledge  of  God)  could  be  woven  from  this  fanciful 
explanation  of  Scripture — all  sorts  of  fantastic  beliefs 
could  be  read  into  it — and  were. 

Reaction  Against 
Philosophy  and 
Legalism. 

The  movement  was  launched  at  a  period  when  it  would 
strike  a  responsive  chord  in  Israel ;  or  perhaps  it  appear- 
ance was  a  response  to  the  period's  need.  The  philosophy 
of  Maimonides  had  created  a  reaction ;  yet  many  who 
shrank  from  the  cold  rationalism  of  the  "Guide"  were 
equally  repelled  by  the  dry  legalism  of  the  Talmudic 
schools.  Yearning  for  that  element  in  religion  that  ap- 
peals to  the  emotions,  that  stirs  and  thrills  and  suggests 
the  imminence  of  God,  they  turned  to  the  mysticism  of 
the  Kabala  as  to  a  refuge.  Indeed,  we  meet  two  parallel 
strands,  each  an  escape  from  these  two  respective  condi- 
tions, rationalistic  and  legalistic — the  first  and  the  chief 
in  Spain,  where  philosophic  rationalism  had  widest  sway ; 
the  second  in  Germany,  where  rabbinic  legalism  pre- 
vailed. Each  produced  a  characteristic  Kabala — that  of 
Spain,  which  will  demand  our  chief  consideration,  was 
more  abstract  and  speculative  and  dealt  with  the  meta- 
physical side  of  religion ;  the  other,  the  German,  was 
more  tangible  and  naive  and  dealt  rather  with  the  cere- 
monial side  of  religion,  and  reveled  in  the  mystic  sug- 
gestions of  numbers  and  letters.  But  in  later  develop- 
ment both  merged  into  one  system. 

With  whom  did  the  movement  begin?  As  a  mystic 
cult  among  a  few,  a  mere  sporadic  tradition,  cherished 
by  scattered  individuals,  we  cannot  say. 

But  it  was  in  the  twelfth  century,  with  the  appearance 


THE  RISE  OP  MYSTICISM  225 

of  a  book  called  Baliir  (Revelation)  that  Kabala,  from 
being  the  private  doctrine  of  a  few,  became  a  current 
cult  of  many.  This  book  is  ascribed  to  one  Isaac  the 
Blind,  but  it  was  one  of  those  books  that  are  not  prod- 
ucts of  single  individuals,  though  single  individuals  may 
edit  them.  Rather  let  us  say  that  this  compilation  was 
finally  put  forth  by  Azrael,  of  Spain,  about  the  year  1200, 
reduced  to  a  philosophic  system.  From  Spain  the  move- 
ment spread,  reaching  to  the  Orient,  where  it  found  a 
congenial  atmosphere.  While  it  met  much  opposition,  it 
also  met  wide  endorsement  from  persons  of  prominence. 
Among  these  was  Nachmanides,  who  fostered  the  move- 
ment less  by  his  actual  contribution  than  by  his  personal 
influence. 

Influence 

of  Mysticism. 

The  new  cult  deeply  aflfected  those  who  accepted  it. 
It  encouraged  asceticism  and  worked  up  some  of  the  fol- 
lowers into  a  state  of  ecstacy,  like  Saul  among  the 
prophets.  But  such  are  not  unusual  accompaniments  of 
new  religious  movements.  We  noticed  this  in  the  rise  of 
Karaism.  Some  Kabalists  were  moved  to  great  excesses 
and  indulged  in  extravagant  notions  that  they  were  Mes- 
siahs sent  to  deliver  Israel.  Such  enthusiasts  appeared 
from  time  to  time  and  had  large  followings,  especially 
among  the  simple  minded. 

The  fascination  of  Kabala  was  leading  its  followers 
more  and  more  astray  from  the  sober  and  natural  in- 
terpretation of  the  Jewish  Law  and  the  divine  will.  In 
the  thirteenth  century  Spain  produced  two  great  Kabal- 
ists :  the  first,  Todros  Abulafia,  a  man  of  scholarship  and 
weight,  whose  influence  in  sowing  seeds  of  mysticism 
continued  for  generations  after  he  had  passed  away.  The 
second  Kabalistic  enthusiast  was  Abraham  Abulafia,  who 


226  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

tried  even  to  convert  the  Pope,  and  finally  declared  him- 
self the  Messiah.  Had  not  Solomon  ben  Adret  inter- 
vened with  a  warning  letter  to  the  deluded  communities, 
his  followers  might  have  been  carried  to  great  excesses, 
though  Adret  himself  was  not  entirely  unaffected  by  the 
fascination  of  the  Kabala.  And  there  were  others.  The 
Spanish  town  of  Avela  produced  a  Kabalist  and  Messiah. 
But  all  these  were  only  its  advance  preachers. 

Moses  de  Leon. 

It  did  not  reach  the  final  stage  in  its  complete  develop- 
ment till  the  appearance  of  Moses  de  Leon. 

This  remarkable  man,  for  we  must  call  him  in  whatever 
spirit  we  accept  his  writings  or  doings,  was  born  in  Leon 
in  1250.  Less  scholarly  than  the  Abulafias  and  lacking 
the  thorough  knowledge  of  rabbinic  law  of  the  Tossafists, 
he  exercised  a  far  greater  influence  on  Israel's  future. 
He  was,  however,  well  read  in  mediaeval  philosophy,  in 
Jewish  writings  generally,  and  was  particularly  versed  in 
all  mystical  literature — for  here  his  bent,  let  us  say  his 
genius,  lay.  He  led  an  easy,  care- free  life,  yet  found 
time  to  use  a  most  prolific  pen.  Whatever  he  wrote  was 
of  a  mystical  character.  In  this  spirit  he  treated  the 
ritual  laws,  atonement  and  the  future  life.  Most  of 
these  books  have  never  been  printed,  though  the  manu- 
scripts are,  for  the  most  part,  intact. 

The  Zohar. 

But  the  work  that  brought  him  lasting  fame  was  a 
Kabalistic  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch,  called  the 
Zohar,  a  work  similar  to  Bahir,  and,  like  it,  meaning 
illumination.  In  fact,  it  was  largely  an  exposition  of  the 
former  work.  He  presented  it  to  the  world,  not  as  a 
work  that  he  had  written,  but  only  that  he  had  found. 
He  ascribed  it  to  Simon  ben  Jochai,  one  of  the  Tanaim 


THE   RISE  OF    MYSTICISM  22/ 

[  T.  V.  186)  ;  that  is,  one  of  the  teachers  of  the  Mishna. 
This  saintly  man,  who  flourished  a  century  after  the 
Temple  fell,  is  said  to  have  performed  miracles,  and  his 
character  is  further  idealized  in  this  book  ascribed  to  him. 
To  ascribe  one's  work  to  another  was  not  an  unusual 
device  of  olden  time  and  was  not  deemed  necessarily 
discreditable.  The  Zohar  was  here  presented  as  a  divine 
revelation  transmitted  orally  to  Adam  and  through  the 
generations  until  it  reached  Simon  ben  Jochai,  who  wrote 
it  down.  There  was  therefore  claimed  for  it  the  recogni- 
tion and  veneration  of  a  Holy  Scripture  ;  and  a  divine 
revelation  it  continued  to  be  regarded  by  thousands  of 
Kabalists  in  succeeding  generations.  To  many  it  super- 
seded the  Talmud  as  a  religious  authority.  This  work 
contains  the  completest  statement  of  Kabala,  though  not 
presented  in  an  orderly  system  as  in  the  Bahir.  Nor  is 
the  whole  work  of  equal  merit.  Among  many  childish 
notions  we  get  flashes  of  genius.  In  it  the  two  Kabalistic 
strands — Spanish  and  German — converge. 

Methods  of 

Kabalistic  Interpretation. 

Naturally  we  expect  the  reading  of  mystic  meanings 
into  Scripture.  Did  not  even  Maimonides  yield  to  this 
temptation  and  the  Alexandrian  allegorists?  But  at  no 
time  perhaps  was  fantastic  inference  carried  so  far  or 
allegoric  interpretation  expanded  into  so  elaborate  a  sys- 
tem. It  laid  down  four  distinct  kinds  of  Scripture  inter- 
pretation:  P'shaf,  the  plain  meaning,  regarded  as  super- 
ficial ;  Ramcs,  the  meaning  conveyed  in  hints ;  D'rash,  the 
more  elaborate  exposition  ;  and  lastly,  Sod,  the  inner  or 
secret  that  alone  contained  the  essential  truth,  to  which 
the  Scripture  chiefly  owed  its  value ! 

The  mind  was  supposed  to  enter  into  these  modes  of 
understanding  the  Bible  in  gradations  of  visions  rising 


228  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

from  the  lowest  plane  of  external  knowledge  to  the 
higher  realm  of  the  inner  essence  until  the  most  exalted 
knowledge  was  revealed  through — love  1  For  only  to 
those  who  loved  the  Law  and  whose  minds  were  exalted 
to  a  state  of  ecstasy  was  its  full  secret  disclosed. 

Naturally  many  of  its  interpretations  are  fantastic  and 
unconvincing  and  some  rather  mar  the  simple  grandeur 
of  the  Bible  text  in  seeking  far-fetched  deductions.  But 
regarding  the  work  as  a  religious  expression  independent 
of  the  Scripture,  though  based  upon  it,  it  not  undeserv- 
edly stirred  its  readers  to  religious  enthusiasm. 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  doubts  of  the  critical  as 
to  its  supreme  authority,  mystics  received  the  work  with 
avidity  and  unquestionably  accepted  De  Leon's  declara- 
tion that  it  had  reached  his  hands  after  having  been 
secreted  for  a  thousand  years.  In  the  year  1305  he  died, 
just  when  most  pressed  for  evidence  of  the  genuineness 
of  his  claims.  When  his  wife  and  daughter  confessed 
that  it  was  his  own  original  work,  its  influence  wavered 
for  a  moment  and  then  continued  unabated.  There  was 
so  much  charm  in  the  romantic  story  of  its  origin  that 
they  refused  to  hear  the  more  sober  truth.  How  often 
that  happens  in  life.  Its  later  production  is  evident  in  its 
pages,  since  it  mentions  events  long  after  the  days  of  ben 
Jochai.  (See  notes.)  Nevertheless  Kabala  had  come 
to  s|ay.  We  have  shown  that  it  supplied  a  legitimate 
want  in  Jewish  religious  life. 

In  the  best  opinion  of  today,  though  not  the  work  of 
Simon  ben  Jochai,  it  is  also  not  that  of  De  Leon  either. 
He  at  most  is  its  editor.  It  is  a  compilation  of  mystic 
writings  covering  many  generations. 

Notes  and  References. 

This  and  the  next  chapter  are  recommended  for  ad- 


THE   RISE  OF    MYSTICISM  229 

vanced  pupils,  though  it  is  presented  as  simply  as  the 
subject  permits. 

Read  Claude  Montefiore's  "Mystic  Passages  in  the 
Psalms,"  Jezi'ish  Quarterly  Rcviciv,  vol.  i,  in  which  he 
particularly  specifies  Psalms  xvi,  Ixiii  and  Ixxiii. 

Age  of  the  Zohar: 

For  detailed  criticism  of  the  lateness  of  the  Zohar 
production,  see  Neubauer's  article,  "Bahir  and  Zohar," 
Jczvish  Quarterly  Kevieiv,  vol.  iv.  The  chief  reasons 
given  for  its  production  after  the  time  assigned  (second 
century)  are : 

(i)  The  use  of  vowel  points,  which  were  not  intro- 
duced until  the  sixth  century. 

(2)  It  tells  of  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Cru- 
saders (1099). 

(3)  It  refers  to  a  comet  that  appeared  in  the  year 
1264. 

(4)  It  quotes  Gabirol's  "Royal  Crown." 

(5)  The  manuscript  could  not  have  been  preserved 
a  dozen  centuries  in  the  damp  Palestinian  soil. 

Neubauer  proves  that  the  Bahir  is  likewise  ascribed  to 
an  earlier  author,  Nechanyah  ben  Hakanah,  than  its 
pages  indicate. 

Zohar  and  the  "Disputations." 

As  further  proof  of  the  lateness  of  the  Zohar,  Professor 
W.  Bacher  cites  the  following  quotation  of  Gentile  ques- 
tions and  Jewish  replies,  no  doubt  suggested  by  disputa- 
tions between  Jews  and  Christians,  in  a  disguised  form : 

First  Question — You  say  that  another  sanctuary  will 
again  be  built  for  you,  but  where  is  there  in  the  Scrip- 
tures any  mention  of  a  third  temple  ?  Is  it  not  expressly 
said  of  the  second  temple :  The  glory  of  this  latter  house 
shall  be  greater  than  that  of  the  former?  (Haggai  ii,  9.) 
Second  Question — You  say,  further,  that  you  stand 
nearer  God,  the  Supreme  King,  than  all  other  nations, 
but  ought  not  those  who  are  near  the  King  be  nigh  in 
joys  and  permanently  free  from  grief,  fear  and  oppres- 
sion?   You,  on  the  contrary,  live  constantly  in  suffering 


230  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

and  oppression,  more  than  all  other  men.  It  is  we,  rather 
than  you,  who  stand  near  the  Supreme  King,  and  you  who 
are  far  from  Him  ;  therefore  we  are  free  from  oppression 
and  sutTering,  while  you  are  constantly  troubled  and  op- 
pressed. Third — Lastly,  you  assert  that  you  abstain 
from  forbidden  kinds  of  food  in  order  that  you  may  be 
healthy  and  that  health  may  be  given  to  your  bodies. 
But  in  reality  it  is  we,  who  eat  whatever  we  please,  who 
are  healthy  and  strong,  while  you  are  weak  and  afflicted 
with  illness  and  bodily  infirmities  more  than  all  other 
nations. 

The  answers  were  to  the  following  effect :  "As  regards 
the  first  question,  the  two  sanctuaries,  which,  according 
to  Exodus  XV,  17,  were  to  be  built  by  God  himself,  are 
not  identical  with  the  two  historical  temples.  Both  the 
temple  of  Solomon  and  the  temple  built  after  Babylonian 
exile  were  human  handiwork,  and  had  therefore  no  sta- 
bility. The  real  sanctuaries  which  were  promised  to  Israel 
will  be  God's  own  creation,  and  will  descend  upon  the 
new  Jerusalem,  the  one  visible  to  all,  the  other  above  it, 
but  hidden  and  in  divine  glory.  For  this  true  temple  we 
still  are  waiting." 

To  the  second  question  he  answered :  "Undoubtedly 
we  stand  nearer  than  all  other  nations  to  the  Supreme 
King,  for  God  has  appointed  Israel  to  be  the  heart  of  the 
world.  Israel  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  other  nations 
as  the  heart  does  to  the  limbs ;  it  is  the  heart  alone  which 
feels  pain,  suffering  and  oppression,  while  the  limbs  know 
nothing  of  them."     [Idea  taken  from  Jehuda  Halevi.] 

Then  as  to  the  third  question :  "Israelites,  unlike  the 
Gentiles,  abstain  from  all  unclean  food,  just  as  the  tender 
and  delicate  heart,  on  which  the  welfare  of  all  the  limbs 
depends,  only  absorbs  the  purest  elements  of  food,  leav- 
ing all  coarser  nutriment  for  the  stronger  limbs." 

Like  the  Zohar,  the  Book  of  the  Law  (Deutronomy), 
said  to  have  been  found  in  the  reign  of  Josiah,  was  prob- 
ably compiled  at  that  time. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

Can  we  separate  faith  and  realization  of  God  from 
mysticism? 


231 


C  H  y\  P  T  E  R  XXV. 
THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  KABALA. 

While  much  mystic  literature  preceded  the  Zohar  and 
certainly  a  voluminous  literature  followed  it,  the  Zohar 
as  such  came  to  be  known  as  the  Kabala,  the  Bible,  as 
it  were,  of  mysticism.  The  name  Kabala  implies,  as  al- 
ready indicated,  a  divinely  transmitted  revelation  (a 
claim  made,  by  the  way,  for  the  sacred  books  of  all 
religions). 

In  now  presenting  an  outline  of  its  teaching,  its  main 
doctrines  will  be  presented,  not  as  in  the  Zohar  only,  but 
in  the  Bahir  also ;  likewise  in  later  Kabalistic  works — a 
composite  picture  of  many  stages  in  its  development. 

God. 

(i)  God  is  called  the  En  Sof  (endless)  the  Infinite, 
we  might  almost  say  the  Indefinite,  for  no  attributes  can 
be  described  to  Him.  He  transcends  even  life  and  thought 
and  in  Him  there  is  no  distinction  between  subject  and 
object.  The  old  difficulty  encountered  by  each  philo- 
sophical school — how  to  bridge  the  chasm  between  per- 
fect abstract  divinity  and  the  finite,  material  world — is 
answered  here  somewhat  in  the  Neo-Platonic  fashion : 
God's  formal  Will  (thought)  contained  in  itself  the  uni- 
verse. He  radiates  from  His  infinite  light  spiritual  forces 
called  Scphirath  (a  word  meaning  both  number  and 
sphere)  emanations  of  His  unchangeable  self,  but  through 
which  change  can  take  place.  A  series  of  ten  Sephirath 
varyingly  reflect  the  divine  light.  From  the  first — which 
is  co-eternal  with  God,  the  first  effect  of  His  will — there 


232 


HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 


emanate  the  other  nine  Sephirath,  or,  to  give  them  a  later 

name,  IntelHgences.     Each  successively  flows   from  the 

preceding — the  third  from  the  second,  the   fourth   from 

the  third,  and  so  throughout. 

They  are  grouped  in  threes  (triads)  and  are  contrasted 

as  positive — male,  negative  ;  female,  as  indicated  in  the 

following  diagram : 

Beauty 

Foundation  , 

Justice 


Wisdom 
Love 


Intellisrence 


Firmness. 


Kingdom 


In  their  totality  they  rep- 
resent the  original  type  of  the 
heavenly  man,  of  whom  the 
earthly  man  is  a  faint  copy. 
All  things  in  the  lower  world 
have  their  original  type  in  the 
higher  world.  The  union  of 
the  Sephirath  produces  the 
universe  and  reveals  the  En 
Sof — the  infinite  God. 

The  universe  consists  of 
different  worlds.  The  highest 
world  contains  angels,  realm 
of  light  and  good;  the  lower 
is  the  real  of  action  and  of 
matter.  The  lowest  is  the 
world  of  evil  spirits,  with  Sa- 
mael  (Satan)  as  Prince  of 
Darkness.  Each  has  again  its 
triple. group  of  Sephirath. 


Splendor 


THE  IDEAL  TYPE. 


THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF    KAI5ALA  233 

Man. 

(2)  Man  is  the  highest  product  of  creation,  a  micro- 
cosm— i.  e.,  Httle  world.  The  members  of  his  body  cor- 
respond to  the  visible  universe.  The  body  is  but  the 
garment  of  the  soul. 

The  Sephirath  idea,  the  main  teaching  of  Kabala,  runs 
through  its  entire  system.  The  soul  in  turn  having  its  ten 
powders,  subdivides  into  triple  groups.  There  is  first  the 
seat  of  the  animal  instincts  (Hebrew  ncfcsli)  ;  second, 
the  moral — good  and  evil  (Hebrew,  rnach)  ;  third,  the 
highest — pure  intelligence  (Hebrew,  ncsliatiiah) ,  direct 
emanation  of  divine  wisdom. 

The  soul,  so  runs  the  Kabalistic  theory,  inhabits  the 
realm  of  the  Sephirath  prior  to  its  entrance  upon  earth, 
where  it  takes  on  a  bodily  form  at  birth.  H  it  pursues  a 
worthy  career,  it  increases  the  flow  of  divine  grace 
through  all  the  intermediary  Sephirath,  thus  furthering 
the  world's  salvation.  (This  was  more  particularly  the 
function  of  Israel  to  whom  the  Law  was  revealed  and 
whose  fulfilment  of  its  precepts  brings  blessing.)  If  the 
Soul's  earthly  pilgrimage  has  been  w^orthy,  it  returns  at 
the  death  of  the  body,  enrobed  in  heavenly  vesture,  to 
bask  in  the  joy  of  the  divine  presence.  But  if  the  earthly 
career  has  been  sinful  and  unrepentant,  it  must  enter  an- 
other body  and  go  a  second  time,  and  even  a  third, 
through  the  earthly  ordeal.  This  corresponds  to  the 
Hindoo  belief  in  transmigration  of  the  soul.  A  strong 
soul  may  be  united  with  a  weaker  to  support  and  enrich 
it.  Purified  by  earthly  discipline,  it  may  at  last  again 
reach  heavenly  bliss.  Whatever  be  our  modern  view  of 
Kabala,  here  are  some  very  suggestive  ideas. 

All  Souls  were  created  from  the  beginning.  But  not 
all  have  entered  bodily  earthly  life,  and  only  when  they 
have  and  all  have  regained  the  heavenly  Sephirath  realm, 


234  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

will  the  world's  redemption  be  complete.  Thus  the  pious 
hasten  the  good  day.  There  will  be  no  more  sin,  and 
life  will  be  an  endless  Sabbath,  and  all  souls  will  be 
united  with  the  highest  Soul, 

The  Messiah. 

(3)  The  soul  of  the  Messiah  will  enter  earthly  life 
last.  So  in  its  general  plan,  Kabala  follows  the  lines  of 
Judaism,  ending  in  the  grand  Messianic  climax.  Differ- 
ent Kabalists  prefigure  the  coming  of  the  Messiah  in  dif- 
ferent ways.  In  the  Zohar  it  will  be  preceded  by  gigantic 
conflict  between  Cross  and  Crescent  and  heralded  by 
supernatural  signs.  But  it  was  the  fondly  cherished  hope 
of  each  Kabalist  in  turn  that  the  advent  of  the  Messiah 
was  at  hand.  This  explains  why  so  many  Kabalists 
claimed  to  be  Messiahs  and  also  why  communities  deeply 
stirred  by  Kabalistic  expectations  usually  produced  Mes- 
sianic uprisings. 

Evil. 

(4)  Evil  in  man  was  the  taking  of  semblance  for 
substance.  (Compare  this  idea  of  evil  with  that  of 
Maimonides,  p.  193.)  It  is  unreal — the  reverse  of  the 
divine.  But  repentance  can  raise  the  sinner  to  the  high- 
est. At  the  time  of  the  Messiah,  man's  original  glory 
will  be  restored  and  Satan  will  renounce  sin. 

Prayer. 

Perhaps  Kabala's  most  valuable  contribution  lays  in 
the  new  importance  given  to  prayer  in  the  Kabala.  It  is 
a  mystical  progress  toward  God,  demanding  as  prerequi- 
site a  state  of  ecstasy.  Such  a  prayerful  condition, 
which    the    prophets    most    completely    attained,    brings 


THE  DEVELOPMENT   OF    KABALA  235 

down  divine  blessing  upon  earth.  It  moves  the  Sephi- 
rath,  making  them  conscious  of  beneiicent  influences. 
Here  is  the  very  essence  of  mysticism.  Not  unnaturally, 
Kabala  produced  the  best  prayers  and  changed  a  mechan- 
ical recital  of  words,  to  which  prayer  had  largely  degen- 
erated, into  true  divine  worship.  It  exalted  and  enriched 
the  ritual  of  the  synagogue,  though  its  reflections  at  times 
drifted  into  phantasy. 

Providence. 

(6)  Nor  was  this  Kabala's  only  merit.  Its  theory  of 
Providence  was  more  intimate  and  closer  than  that  of  the 
Maimunistic  school.  Every  individual  comes  under  the 
benign  light  of  divine  protection,  not  only  the  intellectual 
(or  prophetic)  few.  Immortality  is  the  reward,  not 
merely  of  the  intellectual  genius,  but  of  all  men  of  moral- 
ity and  virtue.  Man's  love  of  God,  together  with  his 
knowledge  of  the  Law,  unite  heaven  and  earth.  So  man's 
good  deeds  exercise  their  far-reaching  influence  on  all 
the  world,  even  as  his  sins  are  equally  baneful.  This 
exalted  conception  of  man's  place  and  power  must  have 
been  very  entrancing  to  Kabalistic  disciples  and  doubtless 
roused  their  enthusiasm. 

Much  space  has  been  given  to  the  theories  of  Kabala, 
because  it  so  largely  influenced  not  only  the  theology,  but 
the  whole  religious  outlook  of  so  many  of  the  Jews  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  It  checked  cold  rationalism  at  the  one 
extreme  and  dry  formalism  at  the  other. 

Defects  of 
Kabala. 

Though  it  deepened  a  sense  of  awe,  this  awe  was 
marred  by  a  superstitious  association.  The  belief  that 
spirits  and  imps  were  found  in  all  elements  opened  the 


236  HISTORY     OP     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

door  to  magic.  The  belief  in  mystical  meanings  in  every 
biblical  expression  based  on  the  numerical  value  of  its 
words  and  the  theory  of  a  heavenly  alphabet  of  the  stars 
gave  further  encouragement  to  the  false  science  of  as- 
trology. 

Among  its  abuses,  Kabala  introduced  some  heresies : 
For  example,  it  accepted  some  of  the  favorite  tenets  of 
the  Church — such  as  the  Fall  of  Man,  the  existence  of 
evil  spirits,  and  Hell  as  a  place  of  punishment  for  sin. 
All  these  Judaism,  without  absolutely  abrogating,  had 
cast  into  the  background,  until  they  became  dead  letters  in 
Jewish  doctrine  and  certainly  in  the  practical  considera- 
tion of  the  synagogue.  Its  group  of  triple  Sephirath 
came  dangerously  near  playing  with  the  Trinity.  No 
wonder  that  Kabala  had  a  fascination  for  many  sons  of 
the  Church. 

Still  Kabala  was  often  accepted  by  conservative  Tal- 
mudists  and  was  not  altogether  opposed  to  the  Talmudic 
spirit. 

Owing  to  the  legitimate  religious  function  it  really 
served  as  already  indicated,  the  movement  readily  spread 
from  Spain  to  Italy  and  thence  acquired  legitimacy  and 
canonicity  for  a  large  portion  of  the  house  of  Israel.  It 
gave  rise  to  many  movements  and  sects — which  will  be 
considered  as  they  occur. 

Notes  and  References. 
Kabala: 

The  philosophy  of  Kabala  was  an  eclecticism — frag- 
ments gathered  from  many  sources.  Here  are  the  ec- 
static intuitions  of  Gnosticism,  a  movement  in  vogue  in 
the  first  century  a.  c.  e.,  {T.  Y .,  p.  199)  ;  the  dualism  of 
Ormuzd  and  Ahriman  (Zoroastrianism),  (  T.  Y.,  p.  235)  ; 
the  Neo-Platonic  gulf  between  abstract  and  concrete, 
{T.  Y,,  p.  143)  ;  with  the  metempsychosis  of  Brahminism. 


EXPULSIONS  FROM  FRANCE  2'};] 

Longfellow's  "Sandalphon"  came  not  "from  the  Tal- 
mud of  old,"  but  from  Kabala. 

Tradilion: 

For  a  full  exposition  of  what  Tradition  (Kabala) 
really  is  in  the  legitimate  sense,  and  as  accepted  by  the 
synagogue  in  contradistinction  to  Kabala  so-called,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  "The  History  of  Jewish  Tradition," 
in  Schechter's  Studies  in  Judaism.    J.  P.  S.  of  A. 

Dr.  Ginzberg  has  a  most  informing  article  on  Cabala 
(a  variant  spelling)  in  volume  iii  of  the  Jczvish  Encyclo- 
pedia, giving  a  complete  survey  of  the  history  and  philoso- 
phy of  mysticism.     Funk  and  Wagnalls,  N.  Y. 

Themes  for  Discussion: 

The  distinction  between  Tradition  in  the  orthodox  ac- 
ceptation and  in  the  Kabalistic. 


CHAPTER    XXVI. 

EXPULSIONS  FROM  FRANCE. 

Union  of 
Separate  Baronies. 

Prior  to  the  reign  of  Philip  Augustus  (p.  143)  we  saw 
that  France  was  made  up  of  small  provinces  ruled  by 
barons,  of  whom  the  king  was  but  one  with  just  a  little 
more  power.  The  English  monarch  also  held  vast  French 
dominions.  But  Augustus,  this  strong  though  cruel  king, 
gradually  formed  a  standing  army,  crippled  the  power  of 
the  barons  and  won  much  territory  from  the  English 
king.  By  aiding  the  pope  in  heartlessly  massacreing  the 
Albigenses,  he  not  only  removed  the  heretics  from  the 
nation,  but  acquired  sway  over  Southern  France,  too. 
So  it  ceased  to  stand  in  liberal  contrast  with  the  North, 
^§  degcribed  in  chapter  xv.    By  the  time  hig  grandson, 


238  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

(Saint)   Louis  IX,  came  to  the  throne,  in  1226,  France 
for  the  Jew  was  ahnost  one  intolerant  whole. 

Attacks  on 
The  Talmud. 

Philip  Augustus  had  persecuted  the  Jews  out  of  avar- 
ice ;  Louis  IX  persecuted  them  out  of  piety.  This  state 
of  affairs  gave  opportunity  to  the  fanatic  and  the  apos- 
tate.    Here  is  a  typical  example : 

A  miscreant,  Donin,  who  became  baptized  out  of  pique 
and  took  the  name  of  Nicholas,  slandered  the  Talmud, 
exaggerating  its  unguarded  statements  and  charging  it 
with  antagonism  towards  Christians,  with  blasphemy  and 
immorality  generally.  The  whole  Church  was  aroused 
and  an  investigation  of  the  Talmud  was  begun.  Again 
a  "disputation"  was  arranged,  in  the  year  1240;  once 
more  the  Jews  had  to  defend  their  traditions  before  a 
hostile  tribunal.  While  nothing  tangible  was  really 
proved  against  the  Talmud,  still  all  copies  found  in  Jew- 
ish homes  were  confiscated  and  twenty- four  cartloads 
burnt  in  Paris.  The  Jews  mourned  the  loss  of  this  lit- 
erary treasure,  that  nourished  their  intellectual  and 
spiritual  nature,  almost  as  sorely  as  a  massacre  of  their 
brethren.  The  Talmud  meant  so  much  in  their  circum- 
scribed, hunted  life. 

Jewish  Physicians. 

The  next  step  taken  by  the  clergy  to  discomfort  the 
Jews  was  to  debar  their  physicians,  in  whose  hands  the 
practice  of  medicine  largely  lay,  from  treating  Christian 
invalids.  This  law  by  which  bigotry  was  made  to  en- 
danger life,  together  with  other  restrictions  as  to  their 
hiring  Christian  servants  and  holding  offices  of  trust,  was 
passed  in  Beziers  in  1246  and  endorsed  later  in  Southern 
France.     The  court  also  imposed  a  Jewish  tax  and  a 


EXPULSIONS  FROM  FRANCE  239 

Jewish  badge.  The  saint-king  gave  himself  needless  con- 
cern as  to  the  size,  shape  and  color  of  this  stigma  of 
ignominy. 

Still  it  is  difficult  to  understand  why  the  Church  should 
pass  a  law  so  injurious  to  themselves  as  that  against 
Jewish  doctors — for  they  were  really  the  teachers  of  such 
Gentile  physicians  as  there  were.  Christians  sat  at  the 
feet  of  Doctor  Shem  Tob  of  Tortosa — yet  he  only  took 
up  the  study  of  medicine  at  the  age  of  thirty  and  still  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  his  profession,  so  strongly  ran  Jew- 
ish talent  in  this  direction.  Church  councils  notwith- 
standing, Louis  IV's  brother  turned  for  succor  to  the 
oculist  Abraham  of  Aragon,  and  others  followed  his  ex- 
ample.     (See  note  p.  204.) 

The  Fifth 
Crusade. 

It  was  dlmost  to  be  expected  that  Saint  Louis  would 
be  the  sort  of  monarch  to  be  seized  with  the  crusade 
mania  (p.  128).  So,  in  due  process,  of  course,  we  find 
him  taxing  French  Jews  to  equip  his  expedition.  He  had 
previously  remitted  the  payment  of  all  interest  to  Jewish 
creditors.  But  his  crusading  zeal  had  not  spent  itself 
till  he  had  banished  the  Jews  from  his  domains.  So, 
while  the  motive  for  expulsion  that  inspired  him  was 
very  different  from  that  which  impelled  Philip  Augustus, 
the  result  was  just  as  deplorable  for  the  Jews.  That  both 
monarchs  readmitted  them  after  a  short  exile  is  a  sig- 
nificant tribute  to  the  economic  value  that  this  harassed 
people  rendered  to  the  nation  that  smote  them  hip  and 
thigh. 

Moses  of  Coucy. 

Under  these  hard  conditions  we  cannot  expect  much 
literary  activity  among  the  Jews  of  France  of  the  thir- 


240  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

teenth  century.  Provence,  in  spite  of  changed  conditions, 
continued  to  be  a  centre  for  Jewish  cuhure.  Yet  it  is 
pathetic  to  see  how  even  those  of  the  less  cultured  North 
devoted  themselves  to  the  study  of  the  law  if  of  nothing 
more.  France  of  this  dark  day  produced  JMoses  of 
Coucy,  who,  in  addition  to  his  commentary  on  the  Law, 
was  a  great  preacher — a  revivalist,  we  might  say.  For 
he  carried  his  message  into  Spanish  Israel,  creating  quite 
an  awakening  with  his  stirring  words,  bidding  them  live 
up  to  the  spirit,  as  well  as  obeying  the  letter  of  hte  Law. 
In  the  conflict  around  the  "Guide"  he  took  the  Maimun- 
istic  side. 

Here  is  a  quotation  from  his  writings : 

"Those  who  lie  freely  to  non-Jews  and  steal  from  them 
belong  to  the  class  of  blasphemers ;  for  it  is  due  to  their 
guilt,  that,  some  say,  the  Jews  have  no  binding  law.  If 
things  go  well  with  Israelites  they  should  not  lose  their 
heads  and  forget  God,  and  ascribe  all  successes  to  their 
own  industry  and  skill    (comp.  p.  90). 

"It  is  because  man  is  half  angel,  half  brute,  that  his 
inner  life  witnesses  such  bitter  war  between  such  unlike 
natures." 

Jechiel  of  Paris,  a  Tosafist,  expounded  the  Talmud  to 
three  hundred  students  until  poverty,  produced  by  re- 
peated confiscations,  closed  the  doors  of  his  academy. 
In  despair,  Jechel  emigrated  to  the  East.  Persistent  sup- 
pression ultimately  told  and  Jewish  scholarship  died  out 
in  France,  overwhelmed  by  hostile  influences. 

By  the  time  that  Rudolph  became  emperor,  France 
and  Germany  had  changed  places — the  former  being  now 
in  the  ascendant.  Alas !  that  this  growing  power  was  to 
be  used  against  Israel,  not  for  them.  For  France  was 
for  them  more  than  any  other  country  the  land  Qf  expul- 
sion.    That  word  better  than  any  other  epitomises  the 


EXPULSIONS  FROM   FRANCl?;  24I 

history   of   the  Jews   in   France    from   the   close  of   the 
twelfth  century  to  the  close  of  the  fourteenth. 

Philip  le  Bel,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  1285,  at  times 
found  it  advantageous  to  protect  the  Jews  against  the  en- 
croachments of  the  clergy.  But  this  came  from  no  regard 
for  them  whatever,  but  simply  part  of  his  policy  in  his 
fight  against  the  arrogant  Pope  Boniface  VIII  and  the 
pretensions  of  the  Church  generally. 

First  Large 
Expulsion. 

For,  when  it  suited  his  purpose,  he  suddenly  impris- 
oned his  Jews,  in  1306,  confiscated  their  goods,  houses, 
synagogues,  and  ordered  their  departure  within  a  month, 
on  the  penalty  of  death.  Craft  was  added  to  cruelty,  for 
his  officers  were  ordered  to  pounce  upon  them  unawares, 
after  six  months'  secret  preparation.  In  this  way  he 
obtained  the  largest  amount  of  spoil.  It  had  not  even  the 
condonement  of  misguided  fanaticism.  The  motive  was 
solely  greed,  an  opportunity  to  confiscate  their  property. 
It  was  wholly  a  "commercial"  transaction,  a  piece  of 
royal  brigandage.  It  grew  out  of  a  quarrel  between  him 
and  the  German  Emperor  (Albrecht)  as  to  whom  the 
Jews  "belonged."  It  was  decided  that  these  money- 
earning  chattels  were  the  Emperor's  property — a  legacy 
from  Rome,  their  conqueror. 

So  he  expelled  these  100,000  Jewish  souls  all  but 
naked — that  is,  they  were  allowed  only  to  take  their 
clothes  and  a  day's  living.  Some  stayed  and  became 
Christians,  some  stayed  and  became  martyrs.  This  band 
of  wandering  Jews,  arbitrarily  reduced  to  beggary, 
sought  homes  near,  if  they  could ;  far,  if  the  must ;  a  few 
went  as  far  as  Palestine ;  the  feeble  died  on  the  way.  It 
was  also  an  intellectual  loss.  Famous  schools  of  learning 
closed  and  the  pupils  scattered.    One  writes :     "From  the 


242  HISTORY     OF     THE     INIEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

house  of  study  have  they  torn  me.  Naked  was  I  forced 
as  a  young  man  to  leave  my  ancestral  home  and  wander 
from  land  to  land,  from  people  to  people  whose  tongues 
were  strange  to  me." 

Three  years  later  the  beggared  survivors  were  per- 
mitted to  return  by  Philip's  son,  Louis  X.  The  plea  for 
their  restoration  came,  not  from  the  Jews,  but  from  the 
people.  According  to  Geoffrey  of  Bouillon,  they  were 
kinder  creditors : 

"Now  may  the  God  of  all  be  praised,  but  if  the  Jews 
had  lived  in  the  kingdom  of  France  many  a  Christian 
would  have  had  great  help,  which  they  now  have  not." 
Again  he  wrote :  "The  Jews,  in  transacting  such  business, 
are  much  more  good-natured  than  Christians  now  are." 

It  was  their  turn  now  to  make  conditions.  They  would 
pay  25,000  livres  for  their  restoration,  but  must  be  per- 
mitted to  collect  their  outstanding  debts,  of  wdiich  they 
would  give  a  third  to  the  king.  They  insisted  on  the 
restoration  of  their  synagogues,  cemeteries  and  books. 
We  are  glad  to  record  this  idealizing  touch. 

On  these  conditions  they  were  admitted  for  twelve 
years.  But  they  must  needs  wear  a  badge — such  was  now 
the  law  of  Christendom.  Otherwise  it  was  only  petty 
persecutions  of  the  clergy  that  prevented  their  life  in 
France  being  a  fairly  happy  one — for  a  while. 

The  Shepherd 
Uprising. 

For,  unfortunately,  King  Philip  V  was  seized  with  the 
Crusade  fever,  too.  Miracles  approving  the  campaign 
were  now  discerned  by  the  credulous  masses.  Soon  f ort  ; 
thousand  shepherds,  led  by  two  unscrupulous  men,  were 
marching  through  France,  armed  with  primitive  weapons. 
The   usual   massacre  of   Jews  by  the   inflamed   fanatics 


EXl'UI.SIONS  FROM   FRANCE  243 

marked  the  bci^inniiig  of  the  crusade.  So  the  old  sicken- 
ing details  of  wanton  slaughter  were  repeatcd^in  1320. 
In  the  fortress  of  Verdun,  where  400  took  refuge,  the 
tragedy  of  York  Castle  was  repeated  (p.  171).  Nearly 
the  whole  Jewish  connuunities  of  Toulouse,  Bordeaux, 
Gascoigne  and  Albi  were  wiped  out.  Altogether,  the  ob- 
literation of  over  one  hundred  and  twenty  congregations 
in  France  and  Northern  Spain  is  the  record  of  the  shep- 
herd uprising. 

As  though  their  cup  of  bitterness  was  not  full,  another 
persecution  arose  in  the  year  following.  A  number  of 
lepers — shut  out  from  society  according  to  the  usage  of 
the  age — wantonly  poisoned  the  wells  and  charged  the 
crime  against  the  Jews,  the  popular  scapegoat.  This 
meant  the  burning  of  5,000  innocents  and  the  robbery 
and  banishment  of  many  more  and  ultimately  the  fining 
of  the  Jewish  comnumity,  after  their  innocence  had  been 
discovered  by  the  French  King,  Philip  V. 

Another  Expulsion 
And  Restoration. 

As  though  to  keep  up  the  unbroken  record  of  persecu- 
tion, in  1322,  under  Charles  IV,  we  find  them  expelled 
again.  Many  had  already  begun  a  voluntary  exodus  from 
this  unhappy  land.  From  then  till  1359  there  is  no  his- 
tory of  the  Jews  in  France,  for  there  were  none  in  the 
country. 

In  the  meantime  France  had  met  retribution  on  the 
battlefield  of  Poictiers,  1356.  King  John  was  taken  cap- 
tive and  a  period  of  anarchy,  famine  and  impoverish- 
ment followed. 

One  more  France  turned  to  the  Jews  to  revive  its 
finances.  They  had  become  an  economic  necessity.  Here 
was  a  mission,  but  not  the  exalted  mission  of  Scripture 
""to  bring  light  (not  lucre)  to  the  Gentiles." 


244  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

Menasseh  de  Vesoul  was  the  forceful  coreligionist  who 
now  arranged  with  the  dauphin  and  exiled  king  for 
Israel's  second  restoration. 

The  return  was  granted  for  twenty  years,  which  was 
from  time  to  time  extended.  They  could  settle  in  town 
or  village,  they  could  purchase  house  or  land.  There 
was,  however,  an  immigration  tax  as  well  as  an  annual 
tax.  Menasseh  de  Vesoul,  always  alert  for  the  interests 
of  his  people,  was  appointed  Receiver  General  and  was 
responsible  for  the  payment  of  Jewish  taxes.  Perhaps, 
too,  he  may  be  credited  with  helping  to  establish  a  rab- 
binical seminary  in  Paris.  They  were  not  to  be  amenable 
to  the  regular  courts,  but  were  subject  to  a  special  ju- 
diciary. This  assured  protection  to  their  persons  and 
property ;  on  the  other  hand,  a  Jewish  crime  brought 
severe  financial  penalty  both  on  the  criminal  and  on  the 
Jewish  community  to  which  he  belonged.  But  Israel, 
as  a  whole,  has  always  been  made  to  suffer  for  the  sins 
of  its  individual  offenders.  A  certain  autonomous  juris- 
diction was  granted  for  punishment  of  misdemeanors 
among  themselves. 

These  regulations  were  changed  from  time  to  time, 
modified  by  the  swaying  passions  of  the  masses.  For  it 
must  be  remembered  that  privileges  were  as  perilous  as 
privations,  rousing  anew  the  bigoted  animosity  of  clergy 
and  people. 

This  was  particularly  true  in  the  matter  of  Jewish 
trade,  practically  confined  to  finance.  Jews  were  allowed 
to  charge  80  per  cent.,  hardly  for  their  own  benefit,  but 
rather  for  that  of  the  king,  who  used  Jews  as  means  of 
indirect  and  hidden  taxation.  But  the  harassed  and  in- 
furiated people  did  not  see  the  royal  usurer,  only  the  ex- 
tortionate Jew,  who  occasionally  imprisoned  a  reluctant 
debtor  (p.  145).   So  the  smouldering  hatred  needed  but  a 


EXPULSIONS  FROM   FRANCE  245 

spark  to  produce  a  conflagration  again.  It  came  in  the 
trifling  aflFair  of  the  Jews  attempting  to  bring  back  an 
apostate  to  the  fold.  This  incident,  meeting  the  wave 
of  persecution  that  was  sweeping  from  Spain  across  the 
Pyrenees  (to  be  recounted  later),  brought  the  climax. 

Last  Banishment 
From  France. 

It  was  banishment  once  more.  In  the  year  1394,  on 
the  day  of  Atonement,  the  day  selected  by  ancient  Israel 
to  declare  the  jubilee  of  liberty  (Leviticus  xxv)  and 
restoration  of  homesteads,  was  chosen  as  the  day  to  de- 
clare exile  fro)n  homesteads  of  mediaeval  Israel.  Charles 
VI  tempered  the  blow;  he  gave  time  and  permission  for 
the  collection  of  debts  and  protected  the  departing  exiles. 

Later  monarchs  continued  to  expel  Jews  from  each  new 
province  they  won  from  their  barons — such  as  Cham- 
pagne, Dauphine,  Provence,  Savoy. 

So  the  Jew  was  wandering  again,  finding  insecure 
homes  in  not  very  hospitable  Germany,  Italy  and  Spain. 
Some  few  remained,  really  at  the  request  of  the  Gentiles 
among  whom  they  lived.  Let  us  be  grateful  for  this  "one 
touch  of  nature." 

So,  as  Jewish  history  had  closed  in  England  in  1290, 
it  now  closes  in  France  a  hundred  years  later,  not  to 
reopen  in  either  till  the  seventeenth  century.  A  few 
lingered  in  both  lands,  but  as  they  only  lived  secretly 
as  Jews  there  is  no  story  of  them  to  tell. 

Theme  for  Discussioji: 

We  may  judge  the  spirit  of  an  age  and  the  degree  of 
its  enlightenment  by  the  books  it  bans  or  burns. 


246  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 


CHAPTER     XXVII. 

GERSONIDES  AND  ASHERIDES :  A  CONTRAST. 

Levi  ben  Gerson. 

Some  years  before  the  final  expulsion,  in  Bagnol 
(Piedmont),  in  the  Provence  of  Southern  France,  that 
old  centre  of  Jewish  culture,  Levi  ben  Gerson  (Gerson- 
ides)  was  born,  in  the  year  1288.  Rashba's  prohibition 
against  teaching  science  and  philosophy  to  youth  was  then 
in  force  (p.  212).  None  the  less  in  the  face  of  this  inter- 
dict, Gersonides  was  given  a  scientific  training  and  in- 
deed he  specialized  in  science.  The  salvation  of  laws  that 
are  blunders  is  that  they  cannot  always  be  enforced.  We 
have  so  far  seen  that  from  the  time  of  Mar  Samuel  of 
Babylonia  up  to  the  time  of  the  French  expulsion,  almost 
every  Jewish  scholar  was  something  of  a  physician  and 
something  of  an  astronomer.  Gersonides  was  a  good 
deal  of  both. 

He  added  to  the  science  of  medicine  by  writing  and 
discovery ;  and  in  astronomy  he  revised  the  conclusions 
of  his  day,  exposed  the  defects  of  the  Ptolemaic  theory, 
that  the  sun  moved  round  the  fixed  earth,  and  invented 
an  instrument  for  scanning  the  heavens.  This,  by  the 
way,  was  some  three  hundred  years  before  the  days  of 
Galileo,  who  is  credited  with  the  invention  of  the  first 
telescope  for  practical  scientific  use.  Astronomers  based 
their  calculations  on  the  observations  of  Gersonides. 
Pope  Clement  V.  had  the  gist  of  this  work  translated  into 
Latin,  which  meant  giving  it  to  the  Christian  world.  The 
renowned  astronomer  Kepler  tried  hard  to  obtain  a  copy. 

We  must  regretfully  pass  over  his  other  literary  activi- 


GERSONIDES    AND    ASIIKRIDES  247 

ties — covering  a  period  of  twenty  years,  his  biblical  and 
Talniudic  commentaries  and  his  treatises  on  syllogisms, 
algebra  and  geometry,  and  come  at  once  to  his  activity  in 
philosophy.     For  his  greatest  achievement  lay  here. 

Philosophy  of 
Gersonides. 

His  chief  work  is  called  Milchamoth  Adonai  (wars  of 
the  Lord).  This  is  simply  a  fanciful  title  taken  from  a 
Bible  phrase. 

His  attitude  was  most  daring.  He  would  know  the 
truth  unhampered  by  any  restrictions  or  previously  ac- 
cepted beliefs ;  undismayed  by  the  possibility  that  the 
conclusions  he  reached  might  contradict  some  teachings 
of  the  Torah.  Such  is  the  only  spirit  in  which  the  scholar 
can  advance  if  he  desires  to  know  more  of  the  realities 
of  the  universe.  It  is  the  attitude  of  the  scientist  rather 
than  that  of  the  theologian.  It  does  not  follow  that,  tak- 
ing such  a  stand,  one's  discoveries  will  necessarily  be 
heretical,  sceptical  or  destructive.  As  a  matter  of  fact 
those  of  Gersonides  were  really  conservative  and  on  the 
whole  tending  to  indorse  the  Law.  A  philosopher  of  a 
later  age,  Descartes,  reached  positive  belief  through  this 
same  process. 

More  courageous  in  this  respect  even  than  Maimonides, 
he  was  also  more  democratic  in  his  attitude  towards 
philosophy.  For  Gersonides  believed  that  science  was 
not  occult  Icarnin^^  for  the  few,  but  a  revelation  possi- 
ble for  all. 

Like  most  of  th^  mediaeval  philosophers,  he  expressed 
his  opinions  on  Divine  Omniscience,  Providence,  Immor- 
tality, Prophecy,  the  Celestial  Spheres,  the  Eternity  of 
Matter.  On  all  of  these  questions  he  diffcrcJ  soniewhr.t 
both  from  Aristotle  and  Maimonides.    We  have  room  for 


248  HISTORY     OF     TPIE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

but  a  word  here   for  his  views  on  each  of  these  great 
themes. 

(a)  Divine  Omniscience.  Does  God  only  know  uni- 
versal truths  as  Aristotle  said,  or  also  particulars,  as 
Maimonides  claimed?  Not  quite  in  agreement  with 
either,  Gersonides  said,  God  knows  essentials  and  there- 
fore he  knows  the  good  in  each  individual. 

(b)  Providence.  This  term  for  God's  wise  provision 
and  care  for  all  his  creatures  is  not  equally  bestowed  on 
all,  according  to  Gersonides.  He  asserted  all  men  are 
surveyed  in  different  ways.  But  the  higher  man  develops 
his  soul,  the  nearer  does  he  come  under  divine  solicitude. 
Thus  is  it  in  our  human  power  to  vary  the  divine  regard. 

(c)  Immortality.  Here  he  distinguishes  between  the 
animal  soul  with  which  we  are  born  and  the  imaginative 
soul,  which  we  acquire,  when  stirred  by  the  Universal 
Intellect.  It  is  only  the  latter  which  survives  the  death 
of  the  body. 

(d)  Prophecy  requires  no  supernatural  gifts.  It  needs 
only  moral  and  intellectual  excellence. 

(e)  Celestial  Spheres.  Gersonides  believed  in  two 
groups  of  natural  laws.  This  left  room  for  miracles. 
Like  all  scholars  before  the  Renaissance,  that  period  of 
great  scientific  discovery,  he  believed  the  spheres  were 
conscious  beings  midway  between  God  and  man.  He 
further  posits  an  Active  Intellect  between  the  First 
Cause,  God  and  these  Celestial  Intelligences. 

(f)  Eternity  of  Matter.  This  Aristotelian  dictum  he 
denies.  But  declares  that  the  world  once  created  by  di- 
vine fiat,  is  endless.  (For  similar  theories  of  Maimonides 
on  D,  E  and  f,  see  pp.  191-193.) 

Gersonides  flourished  in  troublous  times.  He  was 
among  the  refugees  expelled  from  France  and  witnessed 
t,he  sufferings  of  his  people  under  the  Shepherd  Uprising.. 


GERSONIDES   AND   ASIIERIDES  249 

He  wrote  under  difficulties,  often  lacking  the  needed 
books  to  revise  his  work.  He  says,  "The  woes  of  Israel 
are  so  intense  that  no  mediation  could  remedy  them." 
History  rather  disproves  that  sad  conclusion.  They  have 
been  worse  and  they  have  been  remedied. 

Asher  ben  Jechiel. 

Persecution  in  another  land  drove  into  exile  at  the 
same  time  a  scholar  of  a  different  type.  This  was  Asher 
ben  Jechiel  pupil  and  successor  of  Meir  of  Rothenberg 
(p.  160).  He  flourished  at  the  time  of  the  savage  Rind- 
fieisch  riots,  named  after  the  ringleader,  in  1298,  and  the 
varied  persecutions  due  to  the  anarchy  and  demoraliza- 
tion that  followed  the  struggle  for  the  German  crown. 
Least  concerned  in  the  conflict,  the  Jews  were  among  the 
greatest  sufferers — those  of  Wurzburg  and  Neuenberg 
were  destroyed.  This  devastation  of  Jewish  communities 
reached  as  far  as  Austria.  The  new  Emperor  Albrecht 
of  Austria  put  it  down  with  a  strong  hand.  But  then  so 
much  of  the  mischief  had  already  been  done. 

This  persecution  brought  Asheri  to  Spain.  His  advent 
was  big  with  consequence  for  Jewish  learning  and  theolo- 
gy, but  not  altogether  in  a  salutary  way.  It  meant  the 
transfer  of  narrow  scholarship  of  Germany  to  liberal 
Spain.  On  recommendation  of  Solomon  ben  Adret,  he 
was  made  rabbi  of  Toledo.  He  belonged  to  that  exclu- 
sive school  that  interpreted  Judaism  in  rigid  and  gloomy 
terms  and  looked  with  suspicion  on  all  secular  learning. 
Science  was  evil  in  his  eyes  and  the  Talmud  all  sufficient 
for-  education  and  religion.  Asheri  thanked  God  that  he 
knew  naught  outside  the  Torah !  So  that  which  in  Solo- 
mon ben  Adret  was  a  tendency,  in  Asheri  was  life's  cen- 
tral motive.  He  more  than  seconded  the  former  in  his 
chercm,  ban,  against  all  scientific  books,  except  those  on 


250  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

medicine,  and  against  those  who  read  them  prior  to  the 
age  of  thirty  (p.  212).  This  endorsement  of  that  severe 
and  narrow  pohcy  brought  counter-excommunication 
from  Jewish  centres  of  scientific  and  philosophic  culture. 
None  the  less,  the  conflict  sowed  discord  in  Israel  and  re- 
sulted naturally  in  discouraging  even  if  it  did  not  kill 
the  broader  intellectual  activities  of  the  Jews.  For  Asheri 
continued  as  the  head  of  the  Spanish  community  and  is- 
sued many  Rcsponsa.  His  attitude  towards  religion  and 
life  stood  in  striking  contrast  to  that  of  Gersonides,  his 
contemporary  in  France.  Yet  the  pity  of  it  was  that 
while  the  latter  influenced  his  time  but  slightly,  Asheri 
met  a  heartier  response.  He  was  enabled  to  exercise  a 
species  of  censorship  over  all  that  was  now  written  by  a 
Jewish  pen. 

Asheri  was  a  man  who  would  leave  no  room  for  indi- 
vidual religious  spontaneity.  For  example,  if  the  Law 
commanded  worship  three  times  daily,  he  would  permit 
no  addition  to  the  regulation.  There  it  was  stated — 
crystalized  and  final. 

For  the  strengthening  of  that  unbending  attitude  he 
compiled  a  terse  summary  of  all  practical  usages  from 
the  Talmud,  of  which  he  was  a  consummate  master.  By 
this  digest  of  law  he  would  have  Israel  solely  guided ;  for 
"this  was  the  whole  duty  of  man."  Commentaries  were 
written  on  the  Rosh  (named  after  his  initials)  and  it 
gradually  superseded  the  earlier  summary  of  Alfassi  (p. 
71). 

While  Gersonides,  the  original  scientist  and  daring 
philosopher,  created  no  school,  his  slight  influence  dying 
wth  him,  Asheri  transmitted  his  restricted  conception  of 
Judaism  to  his  sons  and  it  thus  became  perpetuated  in 
Israel.  From  now  on  Jewish  students  were  induced  to 
forsake  general  culture  and  to  concentrate  all  study  on 


GRRSONIDi:S    AND    ASIIERIDES  25I 

Talniudic  law.  So  the  legalistic  spirit  hitherto  confined 
to  France  and  Germany  spread  through  Spain  and  he- 
came  the  prevailing  Jewish  attitude,  till  the  end  of  the 
1 8th  century. 

Asheri's  Ethical 
Teachings. 

Rut  though  narrow  theologically  he  was  a  man  of  fine 
principles  ethically.  The  following  quotation  from 
Asheri's  ethical  will  reveals  his  high  moral  standard : 

"Avoid  all  dealings  wherein  there  is  a  lie ;  utter  not  the 
name  of  God  superfluously  to  no  useful  end,  or  in  places 
dirty  or  defiled.  Cut  from  under  thee  all  mere  human 
supports,  make  not  gold  the  foremost  longing  of  thy  life; 
for  that  is  the  first  step  to  idol  worship,  a  heathen  reli- 
gion. Nay,  rather  wander  in  all  humility  before  thy 
Creator,  and  where  thou  seest  His  will  to  be  so,  give  up 
thy  money  at  once.  He  can  more  than  replace  it.  Rather 
give  money  than  words ;  and  as  to  ill  words,  see  that 
thou  place  them  in  the  scale  of  understanding  before 
they  leave  thy  lips.  What  hath  been  uttered  in  thy  pres- 
ence, even  though  not  told  as  secret,  let  it  not  pass  from 
thee  to  others. 

Do  not  fix  thy  eyes  too  niuch  on  one  who  is  far  above 
thee  in  wealth,  but  on  those  who  are  behind  thee  in 
worldly  fortime.  Only  in  respect  to  the  service  and  the 
fear  of  God  look  up  to  the  great,  and  never  to  the 
insignificant.  Take  pleasure  in  being  warned  from  wrong 
and  set  to  right. 

Put  no  one  to  open  shame ;  misuse  not  thy  power 
against  any  one.  Do  not  struggle  vaingloriously  for  the 
small  triumphs  of  showing  thyself  in  the  right,  and  a 
wise  man  in  the  wrong ;  thou  art  not  one  whit  the  wiser 
therefor. 

Be  and  remain  grateful  to  anyone  who  hath  helped  thee 
to  thy  bread ;  be  sincere  and  true  with  everyone,  Jews 
and  non-Jews ;  be  the  first  to  extend  courteous  greeting 


252  HISTORY     OP     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

to  everyone,  whatever  be  his  faith;  provoke  not  to  wrath 
one  of  another  behef  than  thine. 

Never  be  violently  angry  with  thy  wife,  and  if  haply 
thy  left  hand  had  repulsed  her,  let  thy  right  draw  her 
quickly  to  thy  heart  again.  Before  thou  eatest,  before 
thou  goest  to  thy  bed,  occupy  thyself  for  some  set  time 
with  the  Law,  and  let  thy  discourse  at  table  be  on  matters 
which  it  contains. 

Prayer  is  the  soul's  service  to  God. 

Jacob  bar  Asher's 
Code  of  Law. 

The  most  famous  of  Asheri's  sons  and  perhaps  more 
famous  than  the  father,  was  Jacob  bar  Asher.  In  year 
1340  he  compiled  a  complete  summary  of  Talmudic  law 
in  four  parts  (Arba  Turim).  Hence  known  as  the  Tiir. 
Its  divisions  were : 

Part  I.     OracJi  Chayim  (Way  of  Life).     Ritual  laws. 

Part  II.  Yorch  Dcah  (Teaching  Knowledge).  Regu- 
lations on  things  lawful  and  unlawful. 

Part  III.  Ehcn  Haeccr  (The  Stone  of  Help.)  Mar- 
riage and  divorce  laws. 

Part  IV.  Choshan  Hamishpat  (Breastplate  of  Jus- 
tice).    Civil  laws. 

Briefer  than  the  Yod  Hachesakah,  the  summary  of 
Jewish  law  of  Maimonides,  it  was  as  complete,  and  in- 
cluded also  some  decisions  of  the  Geonim  and  even  of 
the  Kabala.  But  while  Maimuni  gave  a  philosophic  at- 
mosphere to  his  Code  by  reasoning  out  the  causes  of 
many  injunctions  and  by  always  bringing  out  the  reli- 
gious aim,  Asherides  gave  a  Code  simply  without  question 
or  inference. 

Unfortunately,  Israel  chose,  as  it  had  so  often  chosen 
before,  the  work  of  lesser  religious  value.  Certainly  this 
Code  supplied  a  want  of  the  times  for  those  at  a  dis- 


GERSONIDES  AND  ASIIERIDES  253 

tance,  seeking  information  on  civil  and  ritual  law.  But 
was  such  a  code  to  answer  life's  great  needs ;  did  it  feed 
the  spiritual  side  of  the  Jew?  Perhaps  it  did  in  so  far 
as  it  cultivated  a  discipline  of  obedience  and  gave  a 
conscientious  sense  of  obligation  fulfilled.  Yet  might  not 
this  discipline  have  been  cultivated  for  observances,  the 
ethical  aim  of  which  was  more  manifest?    Who  can  say. 

Concise  in  form  this  book  became  the  guide  of  Israel 
for  four  centuries,  largely  replacing  independent  research. 
We  might  say  it  remade  Israel  after  its  likeness. 

In  the  1 6th  century  the  Tier  was  modified  and  ex- 
panded up  to  date  and  was  known  as  the  Shnlchan  Aruch 
(Spread  Table).  This  latter  work  continued  the  spirit 
of  its  predecessor — the  spirit  of  Asherides. 

Notes  and  References. 

Gersonides: 

His  scholarly  spirit  was  grander  than  his  scholarly 
achievement.  He  lacked  the  persistent  industry,  the  syn- 
thetic grasp  of  Maimonides  to  give  to  Judaism  a  com- 
plete philosophic  system — he  produced  rather  a  philo- 
sophic critique.  His  conservative  opponents  satirized  his 
work  as  "Wars  against  the  Lord." 

Asher  ben  Jechiel: 

To  regard  the  Bible  and  Talmud  as  all  sufficient  for 
religion  and  culture  recalls  the  attitude  of  one  type  of 
Moslem,  for  whom  all  books  outside  the  Koran  were 
superfluous  and  dangerous.  In  the  same  spirit.  Christian 
monks  erased  classic  writings  to  use  the  parchment  for 
their  monkish  chronicles.  Modern  scholars  now  attempt 
to  decipher  what  has  been  erased  below.  This  doubly- 
used  parchment  is  called  a  palimpsest. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

Why  did  Asherides  exercise  a  greater  influence  on 
Judaism  than  Gersonides? 


254  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

CHAPTER   XXVIII. 
DAVID  ALROY,  MESSIAH. 

Conditions  in 
the  Orient. 

The  East  was  still  the  Jewish  centre  of  population, 
though  no  longer  of  learning  or  authority.  Its  academies 
were  closed,  and  the  lives  of  those  who  lived  there  were 
obscure.  Jehuda  Halevi  and  Nachmanides  turned  to 
Zion,  but  they  were  drawn  to  the  beloved  soil,  sacred  by 
its  past,  not  dignified  by  its  present  association.  It  was 
adjudged  a  merit  to  spend  one's  declining  years  in  the 
Holy  Land.  To  some  it  is  so  still.  The  Jews  of  Jerusa- 
lem were  noted  now  only  as  weavers  and  dyers.  In  Asia 
Minor  and  Palestine  they  left  Christian  centres  to  settle 
by  preference  under  Moslem  regime.  The  Holy  Land 
was  closed  to  them  only  while  held  by  the  Crusaders. 
Yet  the  later  Caliphs  of  the  East  did  not  show  the  vigor 
and  ambition  of  their  predecessors,  nor  the  thirst  for 
learning  of  their  Moslem  brethren  in  the  Peninsula.  Pos- 
sessing the  vices  of  the  Orient  without  its  virtues,  they 
were  indolently  satisfied  to  leave  the  administration  of 
the  State  in  the  hands  of  their  viziers.  This  often  meant 
government  by  corruption  and  bribery,  from  which  Jews 
sufifered  with  "the  rest. 

Resh  Galutha 
of  Bagdad. 

In  the  nth  century,  after  the  schools  of  Sora  and  Pum- 
beditha  had  been  closed,  we  still  find  the  bulk  of  Eastern 
Jews  located  between  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  with 
Bagdad,  Akbara  and  Mosul  (new  Nineveh)  as  their  chief 


DAVID   ALROY 


-D.-1 


centres.  Here  they  were  left  undisturbed,  and  Bagdad 
was  permitted  to  reestablish  the  office  of  Resh  (jelutlii 
(or  Exilareh  )  with  all  its  associated  pomp.  His  powcr 
of  appointment  of  rabbis  and  judges  reached  from  Persia 
to  Yemen  (.\ral)ia);  his  sway  even  included  the  fc.v 
Jews  who  had  drifted  as  far  as  Thibet  and  India.  The 
revival  of  the  Exilarchate  was  followed  by  the  reinstitu- 
tion  in  Bagdad  of  a  college  and  a  Gaon.  It  was  the  am- 
bitious Gaon,  Samuel  ben  Ali,  who  crossed  swords  with 
IMaimonides  (p.  201).  Mosul,  with  its  seven  thousand 
Jews,  also  had  a  local  "Prince,"  but  it  manifested  no 
desire  for  college  or  culture.  The  further  one  penetrated 
into  the  northern  interior,  the  less  learning  did  he  find 
among  the  Jews.  Loyal  to  the  Faith  in  a  blind  and  big- 
oted way,  they  knew  it  only  as  a  transmitted  tradition  and 
hardly  appreciated  its  grandeur.  In  the  mountain  wilds 
some  even  lived  as  robber  bands,  like  the  Ishmaelites  of 
old. 

In  Khorasan  the  Jews  were  cattle  breeders.  Persia  had 
large  Jewish  settlements  in  Ispahan,  Ramadan  and  Susa ; 
but  those  in  Susa  had  dwindled  away  by  the  end  of  the 
1 2th  centviry.  Their  only  points  of  importance  in  i)ost- 
Mohammedan  Arabia  were  Chaibar  and  Yemen.  The 
merchants  of  the  latter  earned  a  reputation  for  benevo- 
lence. The  bulk  of  Arabian  Israel  were  in  the  North 
and  many  of  these  still  lived  the  Bedouin  life.  All  the 
communities  scattered  through  Moslem  Asia  acknowl- 
edged the  sway  of  the  Exilarch  of  Bagdad.  Each  group 
developed  local  customs  and  local  superstitions.  They  set 
great  store  on  pilgrimages  to  supposed  graves  of  great 
men,  such  as  Ezekiel  and  Ezra. 

Eastern  Jews  then  were  no  longer  making  histor3^  But 
an  incident  in  the  12th  century  breaks  the  silence.  A  man 
emerges,  a  Messiah — David  Alroy. 


256  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

The  Messianic  Hope. 

From  the  days  of  Bar  Kochba's  downfall  in  the  yeaf 
135  A.  c.  E.  {T.  Y .,  ch.  xxix),  the  hope  of  the  advent  of  a 
Messiah,  who  would  restore  the  Jewish  nation,  had  never 
died  out,  and  no  century  has  since  passed  without  some 
individual  rising  from  the  ranks  of  Israel  and  claiming 
to  be  the  long-awaited  scion  of  the  Royal  House  of 
David.  The  historian,  Graetz,  enumerates  seventeen  such 
Messiahs.  Some  were  enthusiastic  visionaries,  some  were 
only  adventurers.  The  appearance  of  a  claimant  to  this 
title  was  usually  a  consequence  of  local  persecution.  In 
no  case  has  a  self-styled  Messiah  brought  relief  to  his 
community.  In  most  cases  he  left  behind  a  legacy  of 
humiliation  and  usually  aggravated  the  persecution  he 
promised  to  remove  (p.  199).  None  the  less,  the  Messiah 
idea  played  a  great  part,  not  only  in  Jewry,  but  also  in 
Christendom  throughout  the  Middle  Ages.  It  was  woven 
into  the  mysticism  of  the  Kabala,  it  was  not  absent  from 
the  creed  of  the  rationalist  Maimonides.  Jewish  specu- 
lation has  varied  widely  as  to  the  nature  of  the  Messiah 
and  as  to  the  world  changes  he  would  bring  about.  Some 
theories  were  fantastically  extravagant.  Preceded  by 
days  of  terror  he  was  to  be  a  man  with  miraculous  gifts, 
whose  coming  was  to  be  inaugurated  with  marvel  and 
who  would  bring  about  spiritual  redemption. 

Some  Messianic  hopes  again  were  sober  and  moderate. 
The  Messiah  of  Maimonides  is  but  a  great  king  who  will 
restore  the  Jewish  nationality  and  who  will  render  war 
obsolete. 

Heralded  by  various  portents,  his  advent  was  some- 
times calculated  to  the  year.  The  Karaites,  among  whom 
Messianic  claimants  had  appeared  in  Syria  and  Persia 
(p.  35),  looked  for  the  genuine  Redeemer  at  the  end  of 
the  loth  century.     A  mystic  told  the  Jews  of  Germany 


257 


THE  OLD  CEMETERY  IN  PRAGUE 


258  HISTORY    OF   THE    MEDIAEVAL    JEWS 

that  he  would  appear  in  the  year  11 00.  A  Kabahst  and 
an  astronomer  of  Spain  had  calculated  it  for  the  year 
1358,  while  the  Zohar  fixed  1648  for  his  coming.  The 
Messiah  was  daily  looked  for  by  the  Jews  of  pre-Moslem 
Arabia,  and  a  persecution  in  the  East  at  the  opening  of 
the  9th  century  was  interpreted  as  a  precursor  of  his 
arrival.  It  was  fondly  expected  by  the  Jews  who  suf- 
fered in  the  Almohades  persecution  (p.  180)  that  the 
advent  of  the  Messiah  would  change  their  sorrow  into 
joy.  About  the  same  time  an  enthusiast  appeared,  claim- 
ing to  be  the  advance  herald  of  his  coming,  the  Elijah,  so 
to  speak,  of  the  Meshiach. 

David  Alroy. 

A  word  has  been  said  of  each  Messiah  as  he  has  ap- 
peared in  the  course  of  this  history.  Something  more 
than  a  word  is  deserved  by  David  Alroy. 

He  was  born  in  Almadia  in  Kurdistan,  in  11 60,  thirty- 
four  years  before  Nachmanides.  In  his  youth  the  Cross 
was  in  combat  with  the  Crescent  for  the  tomb  of  Jesus 
in  Jerusalem.  It  was  the  time  of  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion 
and  Saladin.  The  struggle  brought  trouble  for  the  Jews 
and  invited  them  once  more  to  seek  their  own.  Why 
should  they  remain  in  passive  sufifering  while  others 
fought  for  the  land  of  their  ancestry? 

Alroy  was  a  scholar,  versed  in  Bible  and  Talmud,  es- 
teemed by  Arabs  as  well  as  Jews.  Seeing  the  Caliphate 
weakened  from  without  and  torn  with  dissension  from 
within,  he  conceived  the  daring  plan  of  announcing  him- 
self as  the  Messiah.  He  appealed  to  some  Jewish  out- 
laws of  the  mountains  and  to  the  Jewish  warriors  of 
Bagdad  and  Mosul  to  enter  Almadia  with  concealed 
weapons  and  seize  the  fortifications.    Many  answered  the 


DAVID   ALROY  259 

summons.  The  puerile  attempt  naturally  met  with  the 
failure  that  the  more  sober  expected.  Alroy  was  soon  in 
the  hands  of  the  Sultan,  his  crude  army  dispersed. 

Now  romance  weaves  legend  into  the  story.  As  Sam- 
son broke  from  his  foes,  so  Alroy  had  mysterious  powers 
to  set  himself  at  liberty.  Again  he  was  in  the  midst  of 
his  followers  who  once  more  rallied  round  him.  The 
Sultan  offered  the  Jewish  community  a  curt  alternative. 
Either  they  must  deliver  him  to  the  Caliph  or  all  be  put 
to  the  sword.  The  less  credulous,  led  by  the  Exilarch, 
sought  to  save  the  perilous  situation.  Alroy  was  put  to 
death  by  order  of  the  local  ruler  and  the  Sultan  appeased 
with  a  hundred  talents  of  gold.     What  a  sorry  outcome ! 

But  this  does  not  quite  end  the  story.  Prior  to  Alroy's 
death,  two  adventurers  took  advantage  of  the  prevailing 
excitement  to  play  upon  the  credulity  of  the  Jews  of 
Bagdad.  They  induced  them  to  part  with  their  property 
and  to  wait  on  their  roofs  in  green  robes  the  appointed 
hour  of  departure  for  Jerusalem.  They  waited  with  a 
trust  pathetic  indeed.  Although  their  eyes  were  opened 
to  the  deception  only  when  it  was  too  late,  and  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  Alroy  was  dead  and  with  him  the  cause — 
a  certain  number  continued  to  believe  in  his  Messiah- 
ship,  calling  themselves  Menachemites  (a  name  for  the 
Messiah),  and  still  hoped  for  his  glorious  return.  How 
history  repeats  itself! 

The  one  question  that  interests  us  now  is,  Was  Alroy 
an  enthusiast  or  an  adventurer?  Many  think  that  this 
ambitious  man  only  decided  to  pose  as  a  Messiah  as  an 
afterthought.  Benjamin  Disraeli  has  spun  a  romance  out 
of  the  scant  material  of  the  story,  but  in  this  way  has 
idealized  the  incident  far  beyond  sober  history.  He  in- 
corporates in  it  the  prowess  of  the  warlike  Jews  of 
Khorasan  against  the  Seljuk  Sultan  Singar  in  1153.    So 


26o  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

the  incident  closed,  and  the  Jews  of  Asia  again  retired 
to  their  obscurity   for  three  centuries  more.  • 

Notes  and  References. 

Disraeli's  "David  Ahoy" : 

This  book  makes  deHghtful  reading,  and  is  rich  in  local 
color,  but  the  gifted  author  is  restricted  in  the  authorities 
available  to  him  on  Jewish  practice.  But  the  description 
of  Jerusalem  contained  in  it  is  the  vivid  impresson  of  an 
eye  witness,  the  result  of  Disraeli's  personal  visit  to  the 
land  of  his  fathers. 

Messiah  and  the  Messianic  Time: 

This  doctrine  is  accepted  in  different  senses  by  the  two 
schools  of  Judaism.  Orthodox  Jews  look  to  a  scion  of 
the  House  of  David,  who  will  arise  in  some  marvelous 
way  and  lead  Israel  back  to  the  Holy  Land.  This  na- 
tional restoration  will  be  followed  by  the  world's  accept- 
ance of  the  one  God  and  by  the  dawn  of  an  era  of  peace 
and  good  will.  The  Reform  Jews  also  look  to  the  com- 
ing of  just  such  a  glorious  day  as  the  climax  of  man's 
earthly  pilgrimage.  But  they  believe  that  it  will  come 
about  not  suddenly  or  by  marvel,  but  gradually  and  nor- 
mally. Nor  do  they  teach  that  this  glorious  era  needs 
the  special  leadership  of  a  Messiah  nor  of  Israel's  na- 
tional restoration.  They  believe  in  the  Messianic  Time, 
not  in  the  Messiah  Man ;  in  a  Redemption,  not  in  a 
Redeeemer. 

See  treatment  of  this  subject  in  the  concluding  volume 
of  this  series,  Modern  Jewish  History,  pp.  120,  121. 

Alroy — The  Man  of  Rai  or  Rages: 

The  Messianic  Idea  in  Jezvish  History,  Greenstone, 
Jewish  Publication  Society,  1906. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

The  relation  between  the  doctrine  of  the  Messiah  and 
Jewish  nationalism. 


26l 


BOOK  V. 


SPAIN'S  IRON  AGE. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


Peninsula. 


Alfonso  X,  Wise  of 
Castile  includes 
anti-Jewish  laws 
in  his  code 1ZS7 

Maria  de  Molina, 
regent   1312 

Alfonso  XI 1325 

Pedro  the  "Cruel".  .1350 

Henry    II    -1369 

Jews  deprived  of 
criminzJ  jurisdic- 
tion   13V9 

Jewish  Massacre...  1391 

Maranos     1391 

Alfonso's    code    put 

into   operation 1408 

Tortosa  Disputa- 
tion  1413 


Union  of  Castile 
eujd   Aragon    1474 

Spanish  Inquisi- 
tion    14S8 

Columbus  in  Spain.  1485 

Granada,  last 
Moorish  strong- 
hold, falls 1491 

Expulsion  of  Jews. 1492 

Discovery  of  Am- 
erica   1492 

Portuguese  Inquisi- 
tion   1551 

Departure  of  Mar- 
tanos  from  Por- 
tugal     1557 

Jews  settle  in 
Brazil    1577 


Germany  and 
Poland. 

Early  Jewish  Set- 
1 1  e  m  e  n  t  in  Po- 
land     109S 

Polish   Charter    1264 

Casimir   the   Great.  1310 
Armleder,    persecu- 
tion    1336 

Golden   Gift  Pence.  1342 
Black    Plague    Per- 
secutions   1348-51 

May ence    Synod ....  1381 
Prague    Massacres.  1389 

Hussite   Conflict, 

1420-1434 

Council  of  Basle 
Anti-Jewish  Re- 
strictions     1434 

Jews  Expelled 
from    Augsburg.  .1439 

Fcill  of  Constam- 
tinople     1453 

Jewish  Privileges 
Revoked  —  P  o  - 
land     1454 

Simon  of  Trent 
Blood  Accusation.  1475 


Jewish    Contempo- 
raries. 


Hillel  of  Verona.  b.l220 

Kalonymos,    b 1255 

Immanuel,     fl 1300 

Dante,    d 1321 

Jedaya  Baderesi,  (1.1300 
Chasdai  Crescas,  b.l340 
Isaac     b.,     Sheshet, 

fl 1380 

Joseph  Albo,   b 1380 

Moses   a   Rieti 1388 


Synod  of  Bologna.  .1416 

Abarbanel,    b 1437 

Messer   Leon,   b 1450 

S'mon   Duran 14fil 

El'as  del  Medigo, 
b 1463 

Moses  K  a  p  s  a  I  i, 
ITurkey),     fl 1463 

(P'co  di  Mirandcla, 
Chr:stian  devoted 
to  Jewish  litera- 
ture),   fl 1480 


Settlement  of  Jews     in    New    Amsteidam     (later    New     York)_  i_. . 


.1654 


S65 


GOLDEN  TOWER  OF  SEVILLE 


Castile's  gathering  storm  263 

BOOK  V.     SPAIN'S  IRON  AGE. 

CHAPTER   XXIX. 

CASTILE'S  GATHERING  STORM. 

Before  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century  Castile  was 
much  the  largest  country  in  the  Peninsula.  We  find  the 
bulk  of  the  Spanish  Jews,  perhaps  as  many  as  half  a  mil- 
lion, settled  in  Castile  and  in  its  newly-acquired  provinces. 
The  historian  Kayserling  enumerates  about  one  hundred 
and  twenty  Jewish  communities  here. 

Jews  in 
State  Offices. 

Taking  up  the  thread  of  the  history  where  we  last  laid 
it  down  (ch.  xxiii),  we  see  Alphonso  X,  known  as  "the 
Wise,"  partly  because  of  his  Jewish  astronomical  tables, 
succeeded  successively  by  Sancho  IV,  whose  reign  was 
kindly,  but,  alas  brief ;  and  he  by  Ferdinand  IV.  The 
latter  protected  the  Jews  against  oppression  of  the  clergy 
in  his  day  and  continued  his  father's  policy  of  choosing  a 
Jew  as  his  treasurer — Samuel.  But  Samuel  was  a  good 
deal  more  than  that.  He  had  a  decided  voice  in  the  af- 
fairs of  State.  Indeed,  this  diplomat  awakened  the  an- 
tagonism of  Maria  de  Molina,  that  clever  woman  who 
became  regent  from  1312  to  13 19.  Her  opposition  to 
Samuel  was  wholly  personal,  for  she  also  engaged  a 
Jewish  treasurer  as  well  as  a  Jewish  tax-collector,  and  a 
Jewish  steward.  The  Kabalist,  Todros  Abulafia,  had 
been  both  her  physician  and  financier.  Her  good  will  was 
further  demonstrated  in  the  defense  of  her  Israelitish 
subjects  against  new  canonical  laws,  and  though  she 
lowered  the  legal  rate  of  interest,  she  would  not  permit 


264  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

the  abolition  of  Jewish  debts,  though  a  popish  bull  sanc- 
tioned it. 

But  the  growing  antagonism  of  the  Cortes  of  Castile 
was  only  too  apparent,  both  in  the  restrictive  laws  they 
tried  to  pass  as  well  as  in  those  they  succeeded  in  passing. 
Even  this  queen-regent  found  it  prudent  to  discourage 
close  intimacy  between  Jew  and  Gentile  and  endorsed  the 
new  law  that  Jewish  men  must  no  longer  assume  pre- 
tentious Christian  names,  nor  Jewish  women  wear  orna- 
ments on  their  person.  Such  practices  should  not  have 
been  prohibited  by  the  government  nor  desired  by  the 
Jews. 

Prosperity  had  mnde  the  Jews  indiscreet;  prosperity 
was  to  hasten  their  downfall.  The  old  security  was  gone. 
Foreseeing  trouble  in  the  distance,  Jews  began  emigrat- 
ing both  from  Castile  and  Aragon  during  the  whole  of 
the  fourteenth  century. 

When  Alphonso  XI  came  to  the  throne  in  1325  there 
was  a  surface  improvement  in  Jewish  conditions.  Al- 
ready as  Infante  he  had  chosen  as  treasurer  Jehuda  Ibn 
Wakhar,  at  whose  request  the  right  to  punish  their  own 
offenders  was  still  allowed  to  the  rabbinate.  It  was  not 
always  wisely  used  by  Ibn  Wakhar,  for  he  was  under  the 
severe  and  gloomy  influence  of  Asheri.  With  this  rabbi's 
endorsement,  a  blasphemous  tongue  was  removed  and 
the  face  of  an  immoral  woman  disfigured. 

Even  Alphonso's  protection  of  the  Jews  against  the 
spreading  antagonism  was  ultimately  disastrous.  When 
he  chose  Joseph  Benveniste  as  his  treasurer,  it  simply 
deepened  the  jealous  hatred  against  a  people  who  had 
become  so  successful.  It  looks  as  though  Israel's  success 
would  mean  their  disaster.  When  the  Christians  had 
been  few  and  weak  in  Spain  and  the  Moors  many  and 
strong,  the  former  had  been  friendly  enough  to  the  Jews ; 


Castile's  gathering  storm  265 

but  as  the  Moors  steadily  receded  under  the  triumphant 
advance  of  Christian  arms,  the  clergy  made  no  effort  to 
conceal  their  hatred  of  the  Jews  and  began  openly  to 
foment  the  passions  of  the  populace  against  the  wealth 
and  influence  of  these  "enemies  of  Christ."  When  a 
quarrel  arose  between  Joseph  Benveniste,  the  royal  treas- 
urer, and  Samuel  Ibn  Wakhar,  the  royal  physician,  both 
were  accused  of  enriching  themselves  at  the  royal  ex- 
pense. The  former  died  in  prison,  the  latter  under  tor- 
ture. 

Although  the  timely  financial  aid  of  Jews  in  a  war  with 
Granada  retained  them  in  the  royal  favor,  and  Gonzalo 
Martinez,  a  later  Haman,  who  would  have  wiped  out  all 
Israel,  met  Haman's  fate  and  was  executed,  still — even 
Alphonso  favored  their  conversion,  cancelled  a  quarter  of 
their  outstanding  debts,  and  forbade  their  practice  of 
lending  money  at  high  rates  of  interest. 

Pedro 
the  Cruel. 

Alphonso  XI  died  of  the  black  plague  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Pedro,  in  the  year  1350,  at  the  early 
age  of  sixteen.  He  was  called  "the  Cruel,"  though  the 
Jews  found  him  kind.  Nicknames  were  often  given  then 
for  accidental  reasons  that  were  not  always  a  reflex  of 
true  character.  Pedro's  was  a  sad  story  of  neglected 
childhood,  a  struggle  against  the  conspiracies  of  his  half- 
brother  and  the  arrogant  grandees  of  the  realm,  which 
ultimately  broke  out  into  civil  war.  Forced  into  an  un- 
congenial marriage  with  a  Bourbon  princess,  he  neglected 
her  and  thus  earned  the  enmity  of  her  house. 

The  common  people  and  the  Jews  were  his  staunch 
friends.  For  them  he  was  Pedro  the  Just.  A  Jewish 
poet,  Santob  de  Carrion,  wrote  in  his  honor  some  dedi- 


266  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

eatery  verses,  "Counsels  and  Lessons."  Pedro  made 
Samuel  Levi  his  treasurer,  advisor  and  confidential  com- 
panion. Levi  succeeded  in  increasing  the  royal  revenues 
and  acquired  immense  power.  He  built  a  synagogue  in 
Toledo,  still  existing — as  a  church  (p.  58).  Pedro  also 
chose  a  Jewish  physician  and  astrologer  and  would  not  lis- 
ten to  those  who  asked  him  to  abolish  the  right  of  Jewish 
jurisdiction  in  their  own  affairs.  Surrounding  himself  by 
Jews,  the  Spanish  spoke  derisively  of  his  "Jewish  court." 
Turn  of  fortune  brought  Samuel  Levi's  downfall,  but 
the  Jews  remained  loyal  to  their  king.  This  meant  that 
his  enemies  became  theirs.  Pedro's  imprisonment  of  his 
wife  alienated  much  sympathy  and  his  relatives  became 
his  most  bitter  opponents.  As  his  friendliness  to  the 
Jews  was  regarded  as  an  offence  in  itself,  they  became 
involved  in  the  tragedy  of  his  home. 

Civil  War  and 
Jewish  Massacre. 

In  the  civil  war  that  followed,  Don  Henry,  his  illegiti- 
mate brother  and  conspirator  for  the  throne,  was  sup- 
ported by  the  "White  Company,"  under  Bertrand  de 
Guesclin — a  band  of  mercenaries.  But  most  fighting  was 
done  by  hired  mercenaries  in  those  days.  Savagely  did 
they  glut  their  lust  for  Jewish  blood  when  in  1355  they 
invaded  the  Juderia  (Jewish  quarter)  of  Toledo.  For  the 
moment  Henry  was  conqueror  and  Pedro  routed ;  but  his 
cause  was  endorsed  by  the  "Black  Prince"  of  England, 
and  it  became  Henry's  turn  to  flee,  only  to  return  again 
with  the  departure  of  the  "Black  Prince"  and  become  the 
final  conqueror. 

The  Jews  were  loyal  to  Pedro  to  the  last  and  had  to 
pay  dearly  for  their  staunch  allegiance  both  in  money 
and  blood — for  the  insurgents  on  both  sides  indiscrimi- 


Castile's  gathering  storm  ohj 

nately  destroyed  many  of  their  communities.  Henry, 
particularly,  wreaked  his  enmity  on  them  just  because 
they  were  the  royal  favorites,  putting  two  or  three  com- 
munities to  the  sword.  Samuel  Levi  died  on  the  rack, 
his  vast  fortune  confiscated.  In  the  siege,  the  Jews  of 
Toledo  sufifered  all  the  unspeakable  horrors  of  famine. 
Nearly  eight  thovisand  perished.  The  tax  imposed  upon 
the  survivors  was  practically  spoliation,  and  Toledo,  the 
Jerusalem,  of  the  West,  did  not  contain  as  many  hundred 
souls  at  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Henry  as  it  had  contained 
thousands  at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Pedro.  Those 
of  Burgos  had  to  sell  the  Torah  ornaments  to  pay  the  fine 
imposed  by  Don  Henry.  The  Jewish  massacres  contin- 
ued till  1366.  The  hapless  Pedro  was  slain.  At  his  death 
the  Pope  said :  "The  Church  must  rejoice  at  the  death  of 
such  a  tyrant,  ally  of  Jews  and  Moors."  What  a  picture 
of  the  times  that  kind  of  condemnation  reveals ! 

Alas,  the  golden  age  of  Spain  was  over.  Henry  H,  the 
fratricide,  became  king  in  1369.  From  this  time  on  inter- 
mittent persecution  marks  the  history  of  Israel  in  Spain 
till  its  close.  The  usurper  taxed  the  already  plundered 
Jews  to  pay  his  mercenaries.  They  were  to  be  impris- 
oned and  tortured  until  they  paid.  Loyalty  to  Pedro 
came  high !  Yet,  how  strange  that  even  King  Henry 
found  it  advisable  to  engage  some  of  the  very  people  he 
had  spurned  and  slain  as  financial  advisers  and  tax-col- 
lectors— so  valuable  was  their  expert  service  to  the  State. 
Aye,  he  who  had  begun  this  war  largely  as  a  campaign 
against  the  Jews,  later  expressed  his  admiration  for  their 
fidelity.  So,  while  following  his  own  wishes,  Joseph 
Pichon  was  made  the  chief  tax-collector  and  Samuel 
Abarbanel  was  appointed  to  another  financial  post;  yet, 
yielding  to  the  clergy,  he  forced  the  Jews  into  religious 
"disputations,"  and  yielding  to  the  Cortes,  he  imposed  the 


268  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

liated  badge,  which  they  had  resisted  since  its  first  insti- 
tution in  1 21 5. 

Later  Scholars. 

The  intellectual  decline  of  Castilian  Israel  was  almost 
as  sad  as  that  of  flieir  fallen  fortunes.  It  was  due  in 
part  to  the  crusade  against  science  and  philosophy  by  the 
anti-Maimunistic  school  from  within  the  fold  and  in  part 
to  the  social  and  political  difficulties  from  without.  Yet 
Spain  produced  a  few  great  scholars  before  the  night 
shut  down  on  Jewry.  It  is  pleasing  to  turn  for  a  while 
from  these  scenes  of  hostility  and  rapine  to  the  scholarly 
quiet  of  the  study.  Here  the  Jew  found  his  truer  func- 
tion. 

Two  scholars  in  particular  were  Isaac  ben  Sheshet  and 
Chasdai  Crescas,  both  of  whom  were  born  in  Aragon. 
They  were  recognized  as  the  Jewish  authorities  of  their 
times  in  Spain,  France  and  adjacent  lands. 

Isaac  ben  SJicshet  belonged  in  spirit  to  the  circle  of 
Ben  Adret,  of  whom  he  was  a  disciple,  though  he  was  not 
an  opponent  of  secular  study  or  of  broad  culture.  He 
was  an  authority  on  rabbinic  law  first  and  last.  He  was 
rabbi  of  Saragossa  till  1391  and  rabbi  of  Algiers,  his 
place  of  refuge,  after  that  fatal  year.  From  this  severely 
rigid,  but  thoroughly  upright  man,  we  have  a  collection 
of  417  Responsa,  many  of  which  were  incorporated  in 
the  Shulchan  Aruch  (Code  of  Law)  of  a  later  day  (p. 

253)- 

Cliasdai  Crescas,  by  far  the  greater  scholar,  was  born 

in  Barcelona  in  the  year  1340.     Socially  he  was  a  man  of 

wealth  in  close  relation  with  the  Court,  and  was  consulted 

by  the  grandees  of  the  State.     A  man  of  deep  faith,  he 

wrote  a  polemic  against  Christianity,  really  an  apologia 

(defense)   for  Judaism.     We  have  seen  Jewish  scholars 

for  the  most  part  fall  into  two  groups — interpreters  of 


Castile's  gathering  storm  269 

the  Law  and  expounders  of  philosophy.  Crescas,  Hke 
Maimonides,  was  both.  It  was  rather  remarkable  at  that 
time  when  the  lines  between  the  traditional  and  rational- 
istic schools  were  being  so  tightly  drawn,  to  find  a  man 
a  great  Talmudist  and  at  the  same  time  a  great  philoso- 
pher.* His  chief  work  was  Or  Adonai  ("Light  of  the 
Lord"). 

We  have  space  here  only  to  outline  the  six  fundamental 
doctrines  of  Judaism  that  he  regards  as  presupposed  by 
revealed  faith :  Divine  omniscience  ;  Providence  ;  divine 
omnipotence  ;  prophecy ;  freedom  of  will ;  purpose  of  the 
world's  creation : — 

(i)  God's  Omniscience:  His  knowledge  differs  in  kind 
as  well  as  degree  from  that  of  man,  so  that  we  cannot 
draw  inference  one  from  the  other.  (We  might  quote 
here  the  words  of  Isaiah,  "as  high  as  the  heavens  are 
above  the  earth  so  are  the  ways  [knowledge]  of  God 
above  the  ways  of  man.")  But,  declares  Crescas,  God's 
knowledge  of  the  future  does  not  affect  human  free-will. 

(2)  Providence  reaches  all  God's  creatures.  It  in- 
volves rewards  and  punishments  and  a  hereafter.  Even 
punishment  shows  God's  love,  for  it  is  salutary. 

(3)  Omnipotence:  God's  power  is  infinite,  even  to 
the  extent  of  being  unhampered  by  natural  law.  Hence 
Crescas  found  no  difficulty  in  believing  in  miracles.  He 
with  all  Jewish  philosophers  accepts  the  doctrine  "creatio 
ex  nihilo"  (creating  all  things  out  of  nothing).  This  was, 
as  already  pointed  out,  distinctly  opposed  to  the  teaching 
of  Aristotle  of  the  eternity  of  matter. 

(4)  Prophecy:  Prophecy  was  the  highest  degree  of 
human  intellectuality.  Communion  with  God  is  reached 
by  love  rather  than  by  knowledge.  He  makes  the  same 
statement  with  regard  to  immortality  and  human  per- 
fection. 


270  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

(5)  Freedom  of  zvill  is  limited  by  the  law  of  causa- 
tion which  we  can  never  escape.  Yet  we  are  responsible 
creatures.  Freedom  of  choice  is  ours  to  a  degree.  The 
will  operates  as  a  free  agent  when  considered  alone,  but 
in  relation  to  remote  causes  acts  by  necessity. 

(6)  Creation's  purpose:  The  recognition  of  purpose 
and  final  aim  in  the  universe  is  not  philosophy's  con- 
cern, but  it  is  the  supreme  concern  of  religion. 
Crescas  declares  that  the  purpose  of  the  world's  crea- 
tion is  human  happiness.  It  is  the  soul's  striving  after 
union  with  God,  which  continues  with  still  deeper  intens- 
ity in  the  life  beyond. 

Chasdai  Crescas  was  a  kind  and  loyal  friend  in  times 
of  need.  When  the  dark  days  came,  the  weak  found  in 
him  a  staunch  defender.  All  his  energies  were  devoted 
to  mitigate  the  disasters  of  1391.  Of  these  disasters  he 
was  an  eye  witness  and  chronicler,  and  in  them  he  lost 
his  son.    To  their  sad  narration  we  shall  presently  come. 

We  may  pass  quickly  over  the  series  of  events  that 
culminated  in  that  black  year,  of  which  we  may  say  with 
Job,  "may  it  be  blotted  from  the  calendar ;  let  the  dark- 
ness of  the  shadow  of  death  claim  it  for  its  own." 

The  Censure 
of  Alami. 

The  steady  decline  of  the  secure  position  of  the  Jews 
and  the  introduction  of  repressive  laws  under  clerical 
compulsion  grew  more  rapid  as  they  advanced.  Possibly 
opposition  to  the  Jews  was  not  wholly  sectarian.  Their 
wealth  awakened  jealousy  and  the  ostentation  of  some 
may  have  deepened  a  popular  aversion  already  there.  A 
moralist  of  the  time,  one  Solomon  Alami,  speaks  scath- 
ingly of  these  failings  of  Spanish  Israel.  He  tells  of 
their  palaces,  their  gorgeous  equipages,  their  rich  apparel, 


CASTILE'S   GATHERING   STORM  2^1 

their  singers  and  their  dancers,  the  idleness  of  their 
leisure  classes,  their  neglect  of  Jewish  study,  and  the 
avoidance  of  the  rabbinate  in  the  choice  of  careers  for 
their  children. 

It  is  true  that  this  kind  of  denunciation  can  be  brought 
with  more  or  less  truth  against  the  leisure  classes  in 
society  of  all  ages.  It  is  also  true  that  the  wealthy  and 
ostentatious  were  the  few  while  the  humble  were  the 
many,  none  the  less  it  would  indicate  that  prosperity  had 
not  left  the  Spanish  Jews  unspoiled,  and  that  these  mild 
frailties  exaggerated  by  clerical  slander  into  grave  sins, 
might  easily  apply  the  explosive  spark  to  a  smouldering 
animosity.  When  we  turn  to  the  domestic  life  of  the 
Spanish  Jews,  they  stand  in  favorable  comparison  with 
their  surroundings.  Certainly  the  rabbis  of  the  syna- 
gogue were  pure-minded  men  while,  according  to  its  own 
chroniclers,  the  priests  of  the  Church  were  venal  and 
their  corrupting  influence  was  dangerously  affecting  the 
masses. 

Deprived  of 
Criminal  Jurisdiction. 

An  unfortunate  instance  now  occurred  showing  that 
the  Jews  occasionally  abused  the  criminal  jurisdiction 
granted  them,  which  included  the  carrying  out,  with  the 
royal  sanction,  of  the  death  penalty.  This  power  had 
once  or  twice  before  been  taken  from  them,  perhaps 
because  not  impartially  used.  In  1379,  Joseph  Pichon,  of 
Seville,  became  embroiled  in  a  dispute  with  some  Jewish 
courtiers  jealous  of  his  power.  The  Jewish  court  ob- 
tained consent  from  the  new  king  for  his  execution  as  a 
traitor,  but  without  mentioning  his  name.  He  was  ac- 
cordingly put  to  death.  Although  the  charge  may  have 
been  true,  the  high-handed  procedure  created  a  bad  im- 


272  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

pression  in  Seville  and  awakened  the  indignation  of  the 
king.  The  parties  concerned  were  executed ;  criminal 
jurisdiction  was  taken  from  the  Jewish  courts,  never 
more  to  be  restored. 

Some  of  the  old  Visigothic  restrictions  of  pre-Moslem 
days  (7".  Y.,  ch.  xxxix)  were  now  revived  and  imposed. 
With  their  institution  the  change  of  the  status  of  the 
Spanish  Jew  from  one  of  honor  and  security  to  one  of 
humiliation  and  danger  was  rapid.  By  the  latter  part  of 
the  fourteenth  century  their  condition  in  Castile  was 
hardly  better  than  that  of  their  brethren  in  Germany ; 
but  with  this  important  difiPerence.  The  status  of  the 
German  Jews  never  had  been  enviable.  It  was  always 
one  of  sufferance  and  subjection.  They  expected  repres- 
sion and  adapted  themselves  to  it.  But  the  best  of  the 
Spanish  Jews  were  the  social  and  political  leaders — an 
aristocracy,  people  of  means,  culture  and  commanding 
position.  To  strip  them  of  all  public  prestige,  to  keep 
them  at  arm's  length,  by  law,  to  put  a  badge  upon  them, 
to  bait  them  in  the  streets,  to  speak  of  them  contemptu- 
ously in  the  pulpits — meant  humiliation  almost  insup- 
portable. Not  only  that,  but  even  their  lives  were  no 
longer  secure  in  the  public  highways.  Lawless  attacks 
upon  Jews  and  their  property  came  to  be  the  order  of  the 
day.  Kings  could  no  longer  engage  them  as  their  treas- 
urers, even  if  they  would. 

1391. 

The  climax  of  catastrophe  came  with  the  frenzied  anti- 
Jewish  preachings  of  a  bigoted  priest,  Ferdinand  Mar- 
tinez, who  soon  had  a  mob  behind  him,  thirsting  for  Jew- 
ish blood.  At  the  death  of  Juan  in  1390,  a  mere  boy 
became  king,  and  a  condition  of  disorder  consequently 
prevailed.     The  demagogue  took  advantage  of  the  un- 


CASTILE  S   GATHERING   STORM  273 

settled  situation  to  launch  his  most  terrific  onslaught.  It 
was  on  March  15,  1391,  that  he  openly  urged  the  mob  to 
attack  the  Jews.  The  Council  of  Regents  appealed  to, 
could  do  little  to  quell  passions  so  inflamed — they  could 
but  delay  the  attack  some  three  months.  Then  the  storm 
burst.  • 

The  Jewish  quarter  of  Seville  was  burnt,  four  thou- 
sand souls  were  slain,  and  the  majority  spared  only  by 
baptism.  Cordova  became  a  shambles  and  fanatic  hatred 
turned  men  into  brutes.  Women  and  children  were  sold 
into  slavery,  and  synagogues  were  turned  into  churches. 
The  robbery  and  plunder  spread  through  Spain  from 
Jaen  to  Toledo,  from  Ecija,  whose  archbishop  was  chief 
instigator  to  Burgos — seventy  communities  in  all.  Only 
fear  of  armed  reprisal  prevented  a  similar  massacre  of 
the  Moors,  that  had  been  contemplated. 

The  contagion  of  fanaticism  soon  spread  and  the  same 
fate  was  meted  out  to  Jews  in  Valencia,  Navarre,  Cata- 
lonia, Majorca  and  Aragon,  and  the  same  story  repeated 
— the  minority  was  slain,  the  majority  saved  by  con- 
version. Many  were  spared  by  the  sacrifice  of  their 
wealth.  In  Barcelona,  Chasdai's  son  was  one  of  the  mar- 
tyrs. For  three  months  savagery  wielded  the  sword. 
Portugal  alone  was  spared  by  the  energy  of  the  king. 

So  the  proud  Spanish  Jews  were  brought  down  to  the 
dust,  and  all  anti-Jewish  laws  were  now  carried  out  with 
new  severity.  It  is  true  that  Aragon  punished  some  ma- 
rauders, but  Castile  canonized  the  instigator.  Some  Jews 
took  refuge  in  Moorish  Spain,  in  Malaga,  Almeria  and 
Granada. 

But  this  was  not  the  worst.  Those  Jews,  now  forced 
to  a  life  of  disguise  and  known  as  Neo-Christians  or 
Maranos,  became  a  menace  to  the  Church  as  well  as  to 


^74  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

the  Synagogue,  and  were  the  indirect  cause  of  the  ulti- 
mate expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  Spain. 

Notes  and  References. 
Jczvisli  Influence: 

The  power  of  the  Jews  of  the  Peninsula  prior  to  this 
time  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  a  king  lost  the  Portu- 
guese crown  by  refusing  to  appoint  as  the  chief  rabbi  of 
Castile  a  candidate  of  the  queen-regent,  Leonora. 

Crcscas: 

Crescas  was  neglected  by  the  Jews  generally,  but  a 
popularization  of  his  work  by  Joseph  Albo  was  largely 
studied.  The  acceptance  of  the  imitation  and  the  neglect 
of  the  original  master  recalls  the  similar  experience  of 
Ibn  Janach  as  against  Kimchi.     (See  page  142.) 

Jewish  Astronomers: 

Just  as  Alfonso  X's  "wisdom"  was  due  to  Don  Zag's 
astronomical  tables,  so  his  royal  nephew,  Juan  ^Manuel, 
reaped  the  credit  of  another  Jew's  wisdom — Moses  Za- 
cuto. 

"Light  of  the  Lord": 

The  aim  of  this  work  was  to  liberate  Judaism  from 
bondage  to  the  Aristotelian  School.  In  this  respect  Cres- 
cas is  an  ally  of  conservatism  as  against  Maimonides  and 
Gersonides.  But  unlike  the  anti-Maimunists,  who  con- 
demned philosophy  as  such,  he  met  his  opponents  on  their 
own  ground  and  fought  them  with  their  own  philosophic 
weapons.  We  might  compare  him  to  Saadyah  (ch.  iv), 
who  also  defended  the  conservative  point  of  view  on 
philosophic  grounds  in  the  days  when  the  Karaites  were 
the  rationalists. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

Contrast  the  opinions  of  Gersonides  and  Crescas  on 
Omniscience,  Providence  and  Prophecy. 


275 

CHAPTER  XXX. 

THE   BLACK   PLAGUE. 

VVe  turn  again  to  Central  Europe,  no  longer  standing 
in  unfavorable  contrast  with  Spain.  The  Jews  now  en- 
countered an  inhospitable  and  hostile  spirit  in  all  Chris- 
tian nations. 

Were  we  to  single  out  one  century  darker  than  the 
rest  that  were  already  so  dark  for  German  Israel,  it 
would  be  the  fourteenth — for  then  extortion  and  mas- 
sacre followed  fast  upon  each  other,  with  short  intervals 
of  peace. 

The  "Armleder"  and 
Other  Persecutions. 

We  have  seen  in  the  time  of  Meir  of  Rothenberg  that 
persecution  drove  the  Asherides  from  Germany  to  Spain. 
It  was  a  time  of  civil  war  and  anarchy  for  German 
States.  In  1336-37  two  noblemen  ! — mark  the  term  (such 
were  the  usual  ringleaders  in  days  of  outlawry — started 
yet  another  anti-Jewish  crusade.  With  leather  on  their 
arms,  hence  called  Armlcdcr,  they  incited  the  passions  of 
five  thousand  peasants  to  avenge  the  wounds  of  Jesus! 
These  were  "avenged"  in  Alsace  and  the  Rhineland. 
Were  they  never  to  be  healed? 

AMien  the  impulse  was  not  bigotry  it  was  avarice. 
Emperor  Louis  V,  the  Bavarian,  devised  a  new  means 
of  squeezing  money  from  the  Jews.  He  imposed  the 
"golden-gift  pence,"  in  1342,  an  annual  tax  of  one  florin, 
on  each  Jewish  soul  in  the  German  Empire  above  the  age 
of  twelve  and  possessing  twenty  flgrins  or  more.    This 


276  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

was  but  another  variation  of  the  much-utilized  theory 
that  the  Israelites  were  a  property  inheritance  from  an- 
cient Rome. 

The  people  of  Deckendorf,  Bavaria,  freed  themselves 
of  their  debts  to  Jews  by  declaring  that  they  had  dese- 
crated the  host — the  host  protesting  by  miraculously  shed- 
ding blood !  The  ringing  of  a  church  bell  was  the  signal 
for  putting  them  all  to  the  sword.  The  place  became 
henceforth  a  shrine  for  pilgrimage.  Thus  was  crime 
confused  with  piety. 

The  Black  Plague. 

Instances  such  as  these  of  which  many  more  occurred 
throughout  the  Empire  all  pale  into  insignificance  before 
the  grand  tragedy — sequel  of  the  Black  Plague.  Well 
might  Israel  have  cried  with  the  Psalmist,  in  the  day  of 
pestilence,  "Let  me  fall  into  the  hand  of  the  Eternal  for 
his  mercies  are  abundant ;  but  into  the  hand  of  man,  let 
me  n:     fall." 

The  Black  Plague  was  brought  west  to  Europe  proba- 
bly by  sailors  from  central  Asia,  through  the  trade  routes, 
via  Russia  and  Italy,  whence  it  spread  through  all  Eu- 
rope, carrying  death  in  its  train.  During  the  three  years 
of  its  ravage,  1348-1351,  its  victims  numbered,  it  is  said, 
though  hardly  credible,  twenty-five  million  souls.  Its 
ravage  was  increased  "by  the  unsanitary  condition  of  the 
crowded  towns  and  the  wretched  mode  of  living  of  the 
poorer  classes."  In  some  regions  whole  populations  were 
wiped  out,  crops  rotted  and  flocks  wandered  unattended. 

So  far  the  evil  was  terrific  enough  in  all  conscience, 
yet  man  tried  to  be  more  cruel  than  Nature.  Looking 
ever  upon  the  Jew  as  the  source  of  all  evil,  the  rumor 
spread,  almost  as  swiftly  as  the  pestilence,  that  they  had 
caused  the  plague  by  poisoning  the  wells.     The  awful 


6« 


278  HISTORY     OP     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

slander  gained  steady  credence  in  Christendom — though 
not  in  Moslem  lands.  These  enemies  of  mankind,  it  ran, 
had  induced  their  doctors  of  the  "hlack  art"  to  concoct  a 
diabolic  poison,  to  drop  it  in  the  wells  and  rivers  whence 
Christians  drank  and  thus  to  scatter  death  among  them ! 

Owing  to  their  more  abstemious  habits  and  keener 
sense  of  family  devotion,  the  plague's  ravages  among 
Jews  were  not  as  great.  But  this  partial  immunity  only 
strengthened  the  slanderous  belief  and  meant  their  far 
greater  loss  by  fire  and  sword  in  the  end. 

Certain  Jews  were  seized,  placed  upon  the  rack  and 
tortured  until  they  declared  that  they  and  their  brethren 
were  guilty  of  the  charge.  But  why,  it  will  be  asked, 
if  they  were  innocent?  Because,  under  excruciating  tor- 
ture, it  is  a  demonstrated  experience  that  people  can  be 
induced  to  declare  anything,  however  monstrous,  that 
seems  to  satisfy  the  tormentor.  These  "confessions," 
made  broadly  public,  were  followed  by  the  extermination 
of  entire  Jewish  communities  by  fire  and  sword.  Massa- 
cres occurred  in  Switzerland,  Belgium,  France,  but  chief- 
ly in  Germany;  in  Spain  hardly  at  all — it  was  before 
1391.  Pope  Clement  VI  (patron  of  Gersonides)  issued  a 
bull  against  these  murders — for  such  they  were — declar- 
ing the  innocence  of  the  Jews  and  even  demonstrating 
the  folly  of  the  charge.  The  German  Emperor  added  his 
protest.  But  it  was  of  little  use  at  a  time  when  the 
ravages  of  the  plague  had  already  demoralized  society. 

The  torture,  the  condemnation  and  the  burning  alive 
went  on  with  horrible  monotony  from  one  Swiss  town 
to  another,  each  giving  precedent  and  excuse  to  the  next 
for  the  barbaric  procedure.  In  some  cases  burning  was 
remitted  for  perpetual  exile.  The  Flaggelants — a  fanatic 
order,    who    flogged    themselves    in    frantic    frenzy    and 


THE    BLACK    PLAGUE  2/9 

thought  it  piety — fostered  the  bigotry  of  the  mob  and  its 
lust  for  blood. 

In  some  cases  Jews  were  deHberately  put  to  death  for 
sordid  phinder,  their  records  being  burnt  to  canceal  out- 
standing debts.  One  writer,  in  fact,  declares :  "Their 
goods  were  the  poison  which  caused  the  death  of  the 
Jews." 

Wholesale  Slaughter 
in  German  States. 

In  Germany  here  and  there  a  burgomaster,  a  sheriff, 
the  councils  of  Cologne  and  Strassburg,  did  not  "follow 
the  multitude  to  do  evil,"  being  wise  enough  to  see  the 
absurdity  of  the  accusation  and  humane  enough  to  regis- 
ter their  abhorrence.  But  Basle  built  a  house  on  an  island 
in  the  Rhine  in  which  it  first  imprisoned  and  then  set 
fire  to  its  Jewish  inhabitants.  What  a  transformation 
this  fanatic  delusion  had  worked  on  otherwise  law-abid- 
ing, and  presumably  pious  citizens.  Freiberg  burnt  its 
Jews  at  the  stake,  getting  first  a  list  of  their  creditors,  to 
enrich  the  community  with  the  outstanding  debts.  Some 
Jews  of  Speyer  anticipated  the  holocaust  by  self -slaugh- 
ter. This  had  become  a  familiar  but  no  less  terrible 
precedent.  Strasburg,  after  deposing  its  humane  Council, 
roasted  alive  two  thousand  Jews  in  their  own  cemetery. 
Those  of  Worms,  the  oldest  Jewish  community  in  Ger- 
many, those  of  Oppenheim  and  Frankfort,  seeing  death 
inevitable,  cheated  their  remorseless  persecutors  by  set- 
ting fire  to  their  homes.  In  Mayence  they  dared  commit 
the  unpardonable  offence  of  defending  themselves,  killing 
two  hundred  of  their  savage  persecutors ;  it  meant  their 
own  complete  destruction.  Six  thousand  was  the  death- 
roll  there !  Thret  thousand  in  Erfurt.  In  their  prosper- 
ous centre  at  Nuremburg,  on  the  Juder^biihl,  the  awful. 


280  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

human  sacrifice  was  repeated.     y\ustria  and  Bavaria  re- 
corded the  same  shocking  chronicles. 

Did  ever  the  unholy  alliance  of  ignorance  and  hate  pro- 
duce such  abnormities!  To  think  that  communities 
should  commit  such  deeds  and  call  themselves  human, 
to  think  that  a  people  should  suffer  such  deeds  and  sur- 
vive ! 

Poland  alone,  one  of  the  Jewish  lands  of  refuge, 
showed  some  instincts  of  humanity.  Yet  even  here  ten 
thousand  were  slain,  the  government  being  unable  to 
stem  the  mad  tide. 

When  the  ravage  was  over,  of  Germany's  three  hun- 
dred and  fifty  Jewish  communities,  but  three  of  impor- 
tance remained. 

Some  towns,  in  spite  of  vows  of  perpetual  banishment, 
invited  exiled  Jews  to  return — less  out  of  humanity,  than 
out  of  interest.  For  they  keenly  felt  the  loss  of  inhab- 
itants so  industrious  and  enterprising.  They  already  saw 
that  the  commercial  framework  of  society  greatly  de- 
pended upon  this  intelligent  people. 

Synod  of  1381. 

The  Black  Plague's  sequel  brought  other  internal  con- 
sequences to  long-suffering  Israel.  Family  records  were 
destroyed,  and  in  1381  it  became  necessary  to  call  a 
synod  at  Mayence  to  readjust  their  affairs.  Among  old 
decisions  endorsed  were — that  the  childless  widow  should 
be  granted  "chalitza"  (release)  without  quibble  or  delay. 
This  ancient  law  made  it  necessary  for  the  childless 
widow  to  go  through  the  ceremony  of  "release"  from  her 
brother-in-law  before  she  could  remarry,  hence  called 
'  Levirate  law  (Levir,  Latin  for  brother-in-law).  For 
the  earliest  form  of  this  law  see  Deut.  xxv:5-io. 

The  tragedy  also  brought  an  intellectual  decline.  Plague 


THE    BLACK    PLAGUE  281 

and  massacre,  the- natural  and  the  human  scourges,  had 
made  havoc  in  the  ranks  of  rabbinical  savants.  Superfi- 
cial men  became  rabbis,  lacking  even  the  title  Morcnu 
(our  teacher). 

Demoralization 
in  the  Church. 

The  Church  also  was  in  a  bad  way.  The  papacy  tem- 
porarily established  at  Avignon  was  a  centre  of  intrigues, 
conspiracy  and  corruption.  The  revolt  sooner  or  later 
must  come.  Naturally  its  clergy  "bettered  the  instruc- 
tion" of  their  chiefs  and  were  openly  immoral.  They 
also  sanctioned  all  sorts  of  enormities  on  unoffending 
Jews,  whom  they  styled  "outcasts  of  God." 

So  the  story  of  loot  and  massacre  went  on  from  place 
to  place  and  from  year  to  year  with  here  and  there  a 
short  lull.  In  1384,  Nordlingen  wiped  out  its  Jewish 
community.  In  Augsburg  they  were  mulcted  of  20,000 
florins.  On  the  way  to  a  synod  convened  at  Weissenfels, 
in  1386,  a  number  of  rabbis,  granted  "safe-conduct,"  were 
waylaid  by  robber  barons,  and  imprisoned.  They  were 
only  released  on  payment  of  a  ransom.  The  plea  of  the 
marauders  that  Jews  deserved  no  protection  and  that  it 
was  always  a  duty  to  slay  the  "enemies  of  Christ"  was 
all-sufficient  to  pardon  the  robbers.  In  1389,  in  Prague, 
on  a  slanderous  charge  of  priests  that  Jewish  children  had 
desecrated  the  host — a  general  massacre  followed.  Again 
had  Israel  to  repeat  that  awful  ordeal,  slaying  its  nearest 
and  dearest  to  escape  worse  horrors.  A  condemnatory 
papal  bull  brought  no  relief.  Emperor  Wenceslaus 
laughed  at  a  Jewish  appeal,  seized  their  property  and 
continued  to  tax  and  despoil  them.  In  1399,  we  find 
Jews  imprisoned  again  because  an  apostate  declared  that 
the  prayer  Alenu  cast  an  indirect  slur  on  the  followers  of 


282  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

Jesus  of  Nazareth  (see  note).  Its  net  result  was  more 
martyrdom.  So  the_cry  went  up  to  heaven :  "How  loni^. 
O  Lord,  how  long?" 

Thus  the  fourteenth  century  began  and  ended  in  the 
mart3'rdom  of  the  witnesses  of  God. 

Notes  and  References. 

The  Plague: 

Had  Jews  been  living  in  England  in  1660,  its  great 
plague  might  have  been  laid  at  their  door. 

Read  "Dance  to  Death,"  Emma  Lazarus,  in  Songs  of  a 
Semite,  a  story  of  burning  the  Jews  in  Nordhausen  in 

1349- 

Alexin: 

A  prayer  of  adoration  near  the  close  of  a  Jewish  serv- 
ice, named  from  its  opening  words.  "It  is  incumbent  on 
us  to  praise  the  Lord  of  all." 

See  article  in  JezvisJi  Encyclopedia,  vol.  i. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 
The  Jew  as  a  scapegoat  for  the  world's  woes. 


283 


CHAPTER     XXXI. 
UNDER  THE  SHADOW  OF  THE  PAPACY. 

Better  Treatment 
in  Italy. 

While  ecclesiastics  persecuted  Jews  in  all  European 
lands,  it  is  remarkable  that  in  the  very  heart  of  Christen- 
dom, in  Italy,  they  were  left  comparatively  untaxed  and 
undisturbed.  Perhaps  because  the  people  were  "more 
pious  than  the  Pope."  Perhaps  also  because  they  saw 
the  papacy,  its  fallibility  and  its  worldliness  at  closer 
range,  so  that  it  could  not  exercise  that  awe  of  distance 
experienced  in  other  lands.  But  the  most  probable  rea- 
son for  Israel's  better  treatment  there  was  due  to  Italy's 
superior  culture.  It  is  true  that  Jews  were  expelled  from 
Bologna  in  ii/i  and  that  a  pope's  sister  who  wished 
to  expel  them  from  Rome  on  the  charge  of  their  insult- 
ing the  cross,  had  to  be  appeased  with  twenty  thousand 
ducats — but  these  were  in  the  nature  of  exceptions  to 
a  tolerant  rule.  The  early  holders  of  St.  Peter's  chair 
found  it  politic  to  humiliate  Jews  at  a  distance  and  con- 
venient to  engage  as  financiers  and  physicians  those  near 
at  hand.  Italian  Jews  made  a  good  record  and  proved 
themselves  deserving  of  the  equal  status  vv^ith  their 
neighbors  given  them  in  the  courts. 

In  spite  of  these  favorable  conditions,  Italian  Jews 
had  contributed  little  to  Jewish  literature  up  to  the 
thirteenth  century.  Yechiel  Kalon3aiios  became  a  Tal- 
mudic  authority ;  Joab  ben  Solomon  added  to  the  Lit- 
urgy. But  these  sparse  swallows  hardly  made  a  literary 
summer.  It  was  really  the  visit  of  Abraham  Ibn  Ezra, 
in  the  twelfth  centi:ry  (p.  114),  that  first  stirred  the 
sleeping  community  into  life.    Many  of  his  works  were 


,aS4  illSTORY    OF    THE    MEDIAEVAL    JEWS 

written  in  Mantua,  Lucca  and  Rome.  He  unlocked 
Arabic  literature  to  them  with  a  Hebrew  key ;  and  he 
left  behind  him  disciples  to  continue  the  good  work  of 
spreading  Jewish  knowledge. 

Italian  Jews  were  settled  mostly  in  the  South,  the 
Northern  trade  centres  fearing  their  competition.  Ven- 
ice and  Rome  were  their  largest  communities.  In  Na- 
ples they  found  an  appreciative  environment  and  its 
well-dispoeed  king,  Roger,  transplanted  some  Greek 
Jews  from  Messina  to  introduce  the  breeding  of  silk 
worms. 

Frederick  II,  who  became  emperor  in  1212,  induced 
Anatoli,  of  the  Tibbon  family  of  Provence,  to  settle  in 
Naples  and  translate  Arabic  philosophy  into  Hebrew, 
for  that  was  an  easy  step  to  the  Latin.  Many  of  the 
clergy  studied  Hebrew.  In  this  way,  the  commentary 
on  Aristotle  of  the  great  Arabian  philosopher,  Averroes 
(Ibn  Roshd),  became  known  to  the  Christian  world. 
Anatoli  also  introduced  the  study  of  Maimonides 
through   Hebrew  translation,  to  Jew   and   Gentile. 

A  Jewish 
Renaissance. 

But  it  was  the  physician,  Hillel,  of  Verona  (born 
1220),  who  did  most  to  foster  a  spirit  of  learning  among 
Italian  Jews.  He  translated  a  Latin  work  on  surgery 
into  Hebrew.  So  with  the  appearance  of  some  addi- 
tional scholars  and  the  translating  of  some  scientific 
works,  a  spirit  of  learning  began  slowly  to  develop  in 
Italian  Jewry ;  and,  side  by  side,  with  an  increase  in 
their  prosperity. 

The  Jews  were  not  unnaturally  affected  by  the  grow- 
ing spirit  of  liberty,  political  and  intellectual,  all  around 
fhem — and  the  general  fostering  of  art,  science  and 
poetry  in  Italy,  the  land  of  the  Renaissance.     King  Rob- 


UNDER  THE  SHADOW  OF  THE  PAPACY  285 

ert  of  Naples,  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  Italian 
princes,  sat  at  the  feet  of  Jewish  scholars.  This  mon- 
arch was  a  patron  of  Shemarya  of  Crete  and  induced 
him  to  write  a  commentary  on  the  Bible.  Shemarya 
considered  this  scholarly  atmosphere  propitious  for  a 
reconciliation  between  Rabbanites  and  Karaites.  But 
the  latter  body  had  ceased  to  grow,  and  reconciliation 
was  coming  about  naturally  by  absorption. 

So  the  growing  love  of  scholarship,  the  translations 
of  the  best  in  science  and  philosophy  and  the  pa'Tonage 
of  learning  by  the  well-to-do,  after  the  fine  Spanish 
precedent,  were  all  blossoms  of  promise  that  brought 
forth  its  fruit  at  last. 

Italian  Jewry  now  produced  many  poets,  chief  of 
whom  were  the  two  great  satirists  Kalonymos  and  Im- 
manuel.  (It  is  the  function  of  this  type  of  critic  to 
reveal  the  foibles  of  his  age.)  Through  their  pages  we 
see  the  very  human  side  of  their  prosperous  brethren. 

Kalonymous. 

Kalonymous  ben  Kalonymos  was  a  protege  of  that 
famous  patron  of  Jewish  litterateurs.  King  Robert  of 
Naples.  He  was  not  an  Italian  but  a  Frenchman,  born 
in  Aries,  in  1287;  but  he  settled  in  Rome  and  did  his 
chief  work  there.  He  contributed  his  share  to  the  work 
of  translation  from  Arabic  into  Hebrew,  and  also  at 
King  Robert's  request,  from  Hebrew  into  Latin.  He 
translated  works  on  philosophy,  mathematics  and  medi- 
cine. His  ethics  in  fact  is  a  partial  adaptation  of  an 
Arabic  original.  His  great  satiric  work  was  "Touch- 
stone," in  which  he  mirrors  his  age.  Here,  too,  we  get  a 
contemporary  picture  of  the  persecution  of  his  coreligion- 
ists in  his  native  country,  France,  through  the  attacks  of 
shepherds  and  the  calumnies  of  lepers  (pp.  242-3), 


286  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

But  banter  is  his  prevailing  temper.     Here  are  a  few 
examples  of  his  trifling  mood : 

The  Burden  of  Jewish  Observance  on  a  Male. 

Its  many  laws  and  regulations, 
\Miich  are  unknown  to  other  nations, 
Every  Hebrew   must  observe 
With  watchful  eye  and  straining  nerve, 
E'en  though  he   shares   in  public   functions, 
He  still  must  follow  their  injunctions, 
Which  I  would  tell  you  have  been  seen 
To  be  six  hundred  and  thirteen. 

For  he  must  shun  all  jest  and  play, 

And  brood  o'er   folios  night  and  day. 

Mosaic  and   Rabbinic  lore, 

^         =H         ♦ 

And  if   in   an   enlightened  age 
He'd  fain  become  a  cultured  sage 
He  must  cram  full  his  suffering  head 
With  languages,  alive  and  dead, 
W^ith  ethics,  logic  and  philosophy, 
Astronomy  also  and  theosophy, 
And  cabalistic  learning,  too. 
And  history,  old  as  well  as  new, 

And  fill  his'  overloaded  brain. 

*  *         * 

Oh,  heavenly  Father,  who — 'tis  told  — 
Didst  work  great  miracles  of  old. 
How  truly  grateful  I  should  be 
li  thou  hadst  but  created  me 
A  girl   devoid  of  worldly  care. 

And  blessed  with  beauty  ripe  and  rare. 

*  *         * 

From  early  morn  till  late  at  night, 

Where  shine  the  moonbeams'  silvery  light, 

Fd  spend  the  hours  in  peaceful  knitting, 

Contented  to  be  ever  sitting 

Amidst  a  busy,  smiling  crowd 

Of  girls  that  sing  and  laugh  aloud, 


UNDER  THE  SHADOW  OF  THE  PAPACY  28/ 

When  nights  were  dark,  we'd  talk  together 
Of  dress  and  honnets  and  the  weather, 
And  then  we'd  gossip,  too,  apace, 
And  end  the  evening's  conversation 
With   jests,   and  tales  of   sweet  flirtation. 
*         *         * 

Yet  will  I  bear  with  patient  grace 
What  still  befals  the  Jewish  race, 
And  not  forget  those  wondrous  pages, 
Composed  of  old  and  worthy  sages, 
Wherein  'tis  said  that  we  must  bless 
Heaven,  in  woe  and  happiness. 

Here  is  an  instance  where  he  sounds  a  more  serious 
note  in  the  same  work,  "Touchstone": 

A  Metaphor  on  Life. 
The  world  is  like  the  vast  endless  sea,  upon  which 
there  floats  a  small  and  fragile  little  boat — namely,  man. 
It  is  of  artistic  make  and  form,  and  looks  as  if  it  were 
the  work  of  a  master-hand.  It  is  steered  by  the  power 
of  the  divine  spirit  that  directs  its  course,  and  keeps  it 
constantly  moving  onward  and  onward,  together  with  its 
heavy  load  of  cargo — that  is,  man's  action  during  life. 
After  having  started  from  the  coast  where  it  first  came 
into  existence,  it  moves  ever  forward  till  it  reaches  the 
opposite  coast,  where  there  lies  a  new  realm  called 
Eternity,  which  consists  of  vast  regions  that  shine  with 
eternal  light  and  splendor,  and  also  others  that  are 
enveloped   in   everlasting   darkness. 

His  Purim  parody  so  shocked  the  rabbis,  serious  and 
severe,  that  they  forbade  its  reading.  They  may  have 
further  considered  unorthodox  his  plea  contained  in  it 
that  the  Megillah  (Book  of  Esther)  should  be  read  in 
the  language  of  the  country  so  as  to  be  understood  by  the 
majority.  So  we  see  that  the  problem  of  prayer  in 
Hebrew  or  in  the  vernacular,  faced  that  age,  too. 

Yet  Kalonymos,  in  his  "Letter  of  Response,"  dis- 
courages too  daring  a  criticism  of  the  Bible.     He  like- 


288  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

wise  takes  occasion  elsewhere  to  warn  his  wealthier 
brethren  against  extravagance  and  display.  We  met 
this  same  warning  by  Alami  in  Spain  (p.  270).  He  died 
in  1337. 

Immanuel. 

Kalonymos'  greater  contemporary,  Immanuel  di  Roma, 
was  born  about  the  same  year  as  Dante  (1265).  He 
received  the  broad  education  we  have  seen  given  in 
Spain  and  the  Provence — that  is  to  say,  it  comprised 
rabbinics,  mathematics  and  astronomy,  philosophy,  med- 
icine and  versification.  What  was  less  usual,  he  ac- 
quired a  knowledge  of  Greek  and  Latin.  All  of  this  he 
supplemented  by  wide  and  varied  reading. 

He  was  a  man  of  means,  who  held  in  the  Roman  com- 
munity an  office  something  like  that  of  a  congregational 
president.  But  what  is  a  little  more  surprising  in  a  man 
of  his  cast  of  mind,  occasionally  he  even  occupied  the 
pulpit.  He  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Scripture,  like 
so  many  Jewish  scholars  of  that  day.  Here  he  took 
occasion  to  plead  for  a  more  general  culture,  claiming 
that  every  science  was  originally  Jewish.  But,  as  Bible 
expounder  and  grammarian,  his  work  was  like  a  hun- 
dred others.  Immanuel  was  a  poet,  and  only  as  a  poet 
wall  he  be   remembered. 

We  must  contrast  him  rather  than  compare  him  with 
the  Spanish  poets,  for  their  tone  was  always  lofty  and 
their  theme  nearly  always  religious.  Immanuel  was  a 
humorist  and  looked  at  life's  playful  side.  Like  the  later 
Heine,  his  muse  was  Hellenic  rather  than  Hebraic,  not- 
withstanding that  Hebrew  was  its  medium.  He  wrote 
novels,  riddles  and  epithalamia ;  but  then  so  did  Jehuda 
Halevi — but,  oh,  the  gulf  of  difference !  He  shocked 
even  while  he  entranced.     He  had  his  seriour  moments, 


UNDER  THE  SHADOWY  OF  THE   PAPACY  289 

and  in  them  he  wrote  hymns  and  prayers,  some  of  which 
found  their  way  into  a  local  liturgy. 

But,  on  the  whole,  we  can  hardly  blame  the  Shulchan 
Aruch  (Code  of  Jewish  Law)  for  forbidding  the  reading 
of  his  poems.  He  not  only  adapted  to  the  Hebrew  the 
Italian  rhyme  of  alternate  lines,  he  also  adapted  in  his 
tone,  the  Italian  levity. 

Dante,  the  greatest  poet  of  the  Middle  Ages— whose 
dialect  became  Italian  and  all  other  dialects  patois — was 
his  friend ;  but  in  some  respects  Boccaccio  seems  to  have 
been  his  model.  He  wrote  mainly  in  Hebrew,  and  for 
the  Hebrew,  but  even  among  Italians  his  Italian  poems 
ranked  high. 

He  moved  among  the  young  and  liberal  spirits  of 
Italy,  among  those  who  were  breaking  away  from  the 
old  Church  thraldom  and  fathering  the  modern  spirit 
of  Humanism.  (See  concluding  volume,  Modern  Jezvish 
History.) 

Unwisely  trusting  a  friend,  he  lost  his  wealth.  His 
heresies,  condoned  while  rich,  were  now  scathingly  con- 
demned. He  lost  his  position  of  head  of  the  community 
and  wandered  forth  a  poor,  broken-down  exile. 

Kindly  received  in  the  home  of  a  friend,  he  was  in- 
duced by  his  patron  to  collect  and  revise  all  his  writings. 

This  work  filled  his  remaining  years.  It  is  called 
Machberoth,  meaning  collections.  It  consists  of  twenty- 
eight  chapters  in  verse  and  rhymed  prose.  From  them 
we  get  some  pictures  of  the  life  of  his  Jewish  contempo- 
raries, their  wide  scholarship,  their  material  prosperity 
and  also  their  weaknesses. 

Here  are  some  translated  extracts: 

Two  Maids. 

Tamar,   would   I   were   a   flower,   tender  and   sweet, 
To  be  trampled  to  earth  by  her  pretty  feet. 


290  HISTORY    OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

Beriah  'tis  from  fear  of  beholding  her  face 
That  Messiah  delayeth  in  showing  his  grace. 

Tamar  is  enchanting,  dehghting  the  eyes, 

Beriah  a  nightmare   in   woman's   disguise. 

Thine  Eyes. 

Thine  eyes  are   as  bright,   O   thou   sweet  gazelle, 
As  the  glittering  rays  of  the  sun's  golden  spell. 

And  thy  face  glows  as  fair  in  the  light  of  the  day 

As  the  red  blushing  sky  when  the  morning  is  gay. 
Ah,  shall  I  praise  the  bright  charm  of  thine  eyes. 
That  move  every  heart,  that  win  all  by  surprise? 

For  peerless  thy  charms,  and  unequalled  thy  birth ; 

Thou  art  of  heaven,  all  others  of  earth. 

Imitator  of 
Dante. 

His  best  chapter  is  Paradise  and  Hell.  This  is  noth- 
ing more  than  an  extravaganza  on  Dante's  "Inferno." 
He  chooses  it  as  a  clever  means  of  exposing  the  fraihies 
of  his  day. 

Here  is  an  extract : 

At  times  in  my  spirit  I  fitfully  ponder. 

Where  shall  I  pass  after  death  from  this  light. 
Do  heaven's  bright  glories  await  me,  I  wonder. 

Or  Lucifer's  kingdom  of  darkness  and  night? 
In  the  one,  though  'tis  perhaps  of  ill  reputation, 

A  crowd  of  gay  damsels  will  sit  by  my  side ; 
But  in  heaven  there's  boredom  and  mental  starvation. 

To  hoary  old  men  and  to  crones  I'll  be  tied. 

Some  one  has  said:  "Dante  wrote  a  divine,  Immanuel 
a  human,  comedy." 

Immanuel  was  the  last  of  the  great  Neo-Hebraic  poets 
of  his  age.  He  tells  us  that  Jehuda  Siciliano  was  a 
greater  poet  than  he.  But  we  only  know  him  through 
Immanuel's  praise.  Moses  Da  Rieti  added  some  poems 
to  the  Italian  liturgy,  and  his  "Book  of  the  Temple" 
earned  for  him  also  the  title  of  "the  Hebrew  Dante." 


under  the  shadow  of  the  papacy  2gi 

Notes  and  References. 

The  quotations  from  Kalonymos  and  Immanuel  are 
taken  from  Hcbrczv  Humour,  Dr.  J.  Chotzner,  London: 
Luzac  &  Co.,  1905. 

Morais  contrasts  the  purity  of  the  poet  Charizi's  style 
with  the  occasional  coarseness  of  Immanuel.     See  "Pub- 
lications of  Gratz  College,"  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1897. 
hnmanuel  and  Dante: 

Professor  Paur  makes  this  comparison  between  Dante 
and  Immanuel's  visions  of  the  future  world: 

If  we  closely  examine  the  sentiments  set  forth  in  the 
little  poetic  volume  (Ha-Topeth-ve-Ha-Eden),  we  must 
confess  that  the  Jew  Immanuel  need  not  blush  in  the 
presence  of  the  Christian  Dante.  It  is  true  that  he,  like 
Dante,  condemns  those  philosophical  theories  in  which 
the  personality  of  God,  the  creation  of  the  world  by  His 
power,  and  the  existence  of  a  divine  spirit  in  man  are 
denied.  But  Immanuel  shows  more  courage  than  Dante 
by  effectively  stigmatizing  hypocrisy  in  all  its  various 
shapes  and  forms.  He  also  possesses  a  greater  spirit  of 
tolerance  than  the  latter  had  shown  towards  men  pro- 
fessing creeds  different  from  his  own — a  beautiful  hu- 
man naivete  in  matters  of  religion — which  must  be 
sought  after  with  the  lantern  of  Diogenes  among  the 
Christians  of  that  period. 

These  words  have  reference  to  Immanuel's  placing  in 
Paradise  in  a  blaze  of  glory  "the  pious  of  all  peoples." 
This  reflects  the  best  spirit  of  Talmudic  teaching! 

Chess,  Dancing: 

We  learn  incidentally  from  statements  in  the  works 
of  Kalonymos  that  chess  was  the  popular  Jewish  game 
of  the  period.  Also  that  the  rabbis  did  not  permit  danc- 
ing except  between  members  of  the  same  sex. 

lezvs  and  the  Popes: 

In  the  survey  of  Dr.  A.  Berliner's  History  of  the  Jews 
in  Rome,  Frankfort  a-M  :  J.  Kauffmann,  1894,  the  late 
Dr.  Schechter  wrote : 

^'A§  it  seems,  toleration  of  the  Jews  was  a  regular  tra- 


292  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

dition  with  the  Popes.  Gregory  the  Great  defends  their 
synagogues  against  the  desires  of  some  Bishops  to  con- 
vert them  into  churches  and  protects  the  Jews,  too, 
against  compulsory  conversions.  Alexander  III  says 
that  the  Jews  ought  to  be  tolerated  for  "reasons  of  pure 
humanity" ;  whilst  his  successor,  Clement  III  recom- 
mends the  same  treatment  by  reason  of  "pure  mercy 
and  compassion,"  and  even  Innocent  III,  who  compelled 
Jews  to  wear  the  yellow  badge,  thinks  that  "the  Jews 
must  be  considered  as  the  living  witnesses  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith,  wherefore  they  should  be  tolerated  even  with 
their  religious  practices."  Pope  Boniface  IX  (1392) 
again  calls  the  Jewish  doctor  Angelus  Manuele  his  be- 
loved son,  and  appoints  him  his  familiaris.  Some  years 
later  (1405)  another  Jewish  doctor,  Magister  Elyas 
Sabbas,  is  admitted  by  the  magistrate  as  a  Roman  citi- 
zen. The  brief  in  which  Innocent  VII  approves  of  this 
act  contains  also  the  diploma  of  citizenship,  w^hich  says, 
among  other  things :  "Though  the  infidelity  of  the 
Jews  whom  the  Maker  of  the  world  has  created  is  to  be 
condemned,  and  the  obstinacy  of  their  unbelief  is  to  be 
stamped  out,  the  maintenance  of  their  existence  is  never- 
theless in  a  certain  manner  useful  and  necessary  to 
Christians,  especially  (the  existence)  of  such  Jews  who, 
well  schooled  in  medical  knowledge,  have  proved  benefi- 
cial to  Christians,  helping  them  to  regain  their  former 
health."  Some  Popes  even  tried  their  best  to  protect  the 
Jews  against  the  persecutions  of  the  Inquisitors  and  to 
allow  refugees  from  Spain  to  settle  in  Rome." 

Under  Pope  Alexander  VI  (1492)  many  Jewish  refu- 
gees from  Spain  found  an  asylum  in  the  papal  dominions. 

Jezvish  Humor: 

The  humorous  quotations  in  this  chapter  are  charac- 
teristic. A  strong  sense  of  humor  has  been  the  Jew's 
salvation  in  the  Dark  Ages.  It  tempered  all  his  misfor- 
tunes.    Behind  it  lies  his  undying  optimism. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

Why  could  the  theme  of  Purgatory  not  be  treated  as 
geriously  by  a  Jewish  ^§  by  a  Christian  poet? 


^93 


CHAPTER    XXXII. 

ISRAEL'S  FURTHER  FORTUNES  IN  ITALY. 

In  the  Italian 
Republics. 

For  the  next  century  or  so  after  Kalonymos  and  Im- 
manuel,  the  condition  of  the  ItaHan  Jews,  comparatively 
speaking,  left  little  to  be  desired.  It  even  became  one 
of  the  lands  of  refuge  for  Spanish  Israel  after  the  storm 
broke  there.  For  the  separate  Italian  republics,  Venice, 
Florence,  Genoa  and  Pisa,  became  such  important  com- 
mercial centres  that  Church  interest  and  therefore  Church 
dominance  had  fallen  somewhat  into  the  background. 
The  secular  and  industrial  status  of  society,  such  as  we 
see  around  us  to-day,  as  against  the  clerical  and  military, 
was  already  foreshadowed  in  mediaeval  Italy.  Trade 
with  other  nations  and  races  gave  the  Italians  breadth 
of  view  and  a  kind  of  humanizing  education.  In  such  a 
state  of  society,  the  Jew,  as  a  man  of  affairs, — which 
hard  training  in  the  school  of  adversity  had  made  him — 
was  valued  in  spite  of  his  creed.  Venice  asked  the  Jews 
to  open  credit  banks  to  aid  poor  traders.  It  is  significant 
that  the  word  "bank"  comes  from  Italy.  In  England  we 
noticed  that  the  Caorsini  from  Italy  were  already  rivals 
of  the  Jews  as  money  lenders  (p.  173).  Commercial 
loans  on  interest  gradually  ceased  to  be  stigmatized  as 
usury.  The  words  had  been  treated  as  identical,  as  in 
the  Bible.  We  know  of  Jechiel  of  Pisa  as  the  man  who 
controlled  the  money  markets  of  Tuscany.  But  we  also 
know  himi  as  the  generous  man  who  contributed  liberally 
to  release  the  Jewish  captives.  This  sad  duty  often  de- 
volved on  mediaeval  Israel  and  it  was  never  evaded. 


294  HISTORY    OF    THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

"Shem  in  the 
Tents  of  Japheth." 

While  in  Italy  the  Jewish  physicians  were  as  re- 
nowned as  those  of  other  lands,  no  ban  forbade  their 
ministering  to  Gentiles.  In  fact,  Christians  held  friendly 
relations  with  Jews,  at  times  attended  their  weddings  ; 
and  "bulls"  against  social  commingling  became  dead  let- 
ters— for  the  time.  Even  the  traveling  friars  could  not 
turn  public  opinion  against  them.  Bernardinus,  of  Feltre, 
a  Franciscan  monk,  fanatic  and  powerful,  who  used  all 
his  eloquent  zeal  to  stir  the  hate  of  the  populace  against 
the  Jews,  was  forbidden  to  continue  his  incendiary  cru- 
sade in  Italian  cities  and  finally,  in  1487,  was  banished 
from  Florence. 

His  very  different  reception  in  the  Tyrol  and  the  awful 
consequences,  best  bring  out  the  contrasts  of  civilization 
in  these  respective  lands.  So,  although  in  alarm,  the 
Jews  of  Italy  called  a  Synod  in  Bologna  in  1416  to  meet 
the  attacks  of  Vincent  Ferrer  (another  monk  of  the 
same  bigoted  type)  it  turned  out  to  be  unnecessary. 

In  the  classic  era  of  the  Medicis  the  Jews  attended 
Italian  universities  and  had  their  share  in  the  Renais- 
sance— that  is,  in  its  literary  rather  than  in  its  artistic 
phase.  They  were  the  first  Jews  to  make  use  of  the 
printing  press.  Among  Jewish  scientists  and  litterateurs 
worthy  of  special  mention  was  Judah  ben  Yechiel,  rabbi 
of  Mantua,  better  known  as  Messer  Leon,  who  flourished 
at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century.  He  wrote  on  philoso- 
phy, logic  and  rhetoric.  As  a  Bible  commentator  he  was 
daring  and  original  for  his  day.  He  ventured  to  draw 
comparison  between  the  Hebrew  prophets  and  the  Latin 
classics,  bringing  out  the  literary  excellence  of  the  Jew- 
ish writings.  But  the  world  was  not  yet  ready  to  study 
"the  Bible  as  literature."     His  comments  on  "the  virtu- 


Israel's  further  fortunes  in  italy  295 

ous  woman"  of  Proverbs  xxxi,  leads  him  to  a  panegyric 
on  woman  in  general.  He  has  a  word  to  say  on  Petrarch's 
Laura.  Yes,  the  Italian  Jews  were  Italian.  As  we  have 
seen  in  other  lands,  the  Jews  always  showed  political, 
social  and  literary  identification  with  countries  that  be- 
came homes. 

Elias  del 
Medigo. 

A  far  profounder  Italian  Jewish  scholar  was  Elias 
del  Medigo,  born  in  the  year  that  Messer  Leon  died — 
1491.  Educated  in  the  university  of  Padua,  he  became 
an  all-round  scholar,  travelling  widely  and  drinking 
deeply  from  all  sources  of  learning.  He  studied  astron 
omy  under  Galileo.  His  mastery  of  Greek  enabled  him 
to  make  Christian  scholars  familiar  with  Aristotle  in  the 
original ;  with  Aristotle  in  the  commentary  of  Averroes, 
through  his  mastery  of  Arabic ;  and  again  with  Maimoni- 
des'  interpretation  of  Aristotle  through  his  mastery  of 
Hebrew.  Pico  de  Mirandola,  a  versatile  Christian 
scholar,  became  his  pupil  and  patron.  Under  Jewish 
teaching  Pico  became  an  adept  in  Kabala,  but  he  drew 
from  it  Christian  doctrine — such  as  the  Incarnation  and 
Original  Sin.  It  was  not  difficult  to  infer  whatever  one 
desired  by  reasoning  from  numbers  to  facts.  So  the 
Jews  found  it  a  two-edged  sword  (p.  236).  It  enabled 
the  Christian  to  prove  the  Trinity  from  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures.  No  wonder  it  came  to  be  a  favorite  study 
with  Christian  theologians,  and  that  they  burnt  the 
Talmud  and  spared  the  Zohar. 

But  it  was  not  from  Medigo  that  Pico  learned  Kabala. 
His  thoroughly  rationalistic  temperament  had  no  pa- 
tience with  mysticism.  He  rather  inclined  to  the  scep- 
tical, but  like  Abraham  Ibn  Ezra  (note  p.  117)  he  kept 
his  extreme  opinions  diplomatically  in  reserve.    Chosen 


WHERE   JEWISH    COMMUNITIES   EXISTED   IJSf    ITALY. 


Israel's  further  fortunes  in  italy  297 

by  the  university  of  Padua,  at  the  early  age  of  twenty- 
three  to  act  as  umpire  in  a  disputed  point  of  learning,  he 
became  a  public  lecturer  in  philosophy.  So  while  .in 
some  places  on  the  continent  Jews  were  being  driven  at 
the  sword's  point  with  the  cry  of  Hep,  hep  (Hierosolyma 
est  perdita,  Jerusalem  is  lost)  behind  them,  in  Padua 
and  Florence,  Christians  gladly  sat  at  the  feet  of  a  Jew. 

All  his  scientific  and  literary  pursuits  were  apart  from 
his  main  vocation — that  of  physician.  Yet  withal  he  has 
left  behind  him  works  on  nearly  every  science  culti- 
vated in  his  day,  from  mechanics  to  optics — and  from 
geography  to  chemistry.  Mathematical  astronomy  was 
his  great  theme.  Though  he  found  time  to  write  critiques 
on  Rashi  and  Ibn  Ezra,  yet  as  natural  scientist  he  was 
most  esteemed  in  his  own  day  and  is  in  ours.  The 
heavens  rather  than  Heaven  formed  the  subject  of  his 
research. 

The  settlement  of  some  German  rabbis  in  Italy,  refu- 
gees from  persecution,  brought  with  it  their  narrower 
aspect  of  religious  life.  Actual  clashes  now  occurred 
between  liberal  and  conservative.  Indeed  something  of 
the  same  change  occurred  in  the  Jewish  atmosphere  in 
Italy  that  occurred  in  Spain  after  the  advent  of  the 
Asherides  (p.  249).  If  then  the  literary  scepter  was 
passing  from  Spain  to  Italy,  so  too  this  less  advan- 
tageous experience  was  going  with  it.  Thus  does  his- 
tory repeat  itself  in  many  ways. 

Although  by  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  friar 
preaching  and  popish  bulls  gradually  reduced  the  Italian 
Jews  to  much  the  same  social  level  as  those  of  Germany, 
we  at  least  have  no  record  of  tragic  massacres. 

Baderesi,  Poet 
and  Philosopher. 

We  will  append  here,  a  few  words  about  Yedaya  Ba- 


298  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

derisi,  a  poet  and  philosopher.  Not  that  he  belonged  to 
Italy.  The  historians  are  not  sure  whether  this  con- 
temporary of  Immanuel  was  born  in  Spain  or  in  France 
and  driven  from  the  latter  in  the  expulsion  of  1306.  Of 
his  life  we  know  very  little,  but  his  great  work  Bcchin- 
ath  Olom  (an  Examination  of  the  World)  has  been 
translated  from  the  original  Hebrew  into  many  tongues, 
has  passed  through  at  least  forty- four  editions  and  has 
been  honored  with  commentaries  upon  it  by  many 
writers. 

The  following  illustrations  show  his  use  of  metaphor 
in  conveying  ethical  lessons: 

The  World  a  Sp:a. 

"The  world  is  as  a  boisterous  sea  of  immense  depth 
and  width,  and  time  forms  a  fragile  bridge  built  over  it. 
The  upper  end  thereof  is  fastened  to  the  ground  by 
means  of  weak  ropes,  and  its  lower  end  leads  to  a  place 
which  is  shone  upon  by  the  rays  of  the  divine  light, 
emanating  from  God's  majesty.  The  breadth  of  the 
bridge  is  but  one  short  span  and  has  no  balustrade  work 
to  save  one  from  falling  over  it.  Over  this  narrow  path, 
thou,  O  son  of  man,  art  compelled  to  go,  and  notwith- 
standing all  thy  might  and  glory,  thou  canst  not  turn 
either  to  the  right  or  to  the  left.  Now,  threatened  as 
thou  art  on  both  sides  with  death  and  destruction,  how 
canst  thou  maintian  thy  courage,  and  how  can  thy  hands 
remain  hrm? 

'Tn  vain  dost  thou  pride  thyself  on  the  possession  of 
vast  treasures  obtained  by  thee  through  violence  and 
wickedness ;  for  of  what  avail  are  they  to  thee  when  the 
sea  rises  and  foams,  thus  threatening  to  wreck  the  little 
hut  (i.  e.,  the  body),  wherein  thou  liest?  Canst  thou 
boast  thou  canst  calm  and  subdue  the  powerful  waves, 
or  wilt  thou  try  to  tight  against  them?  Drunk  with  the 
wine  of  thy  vanity  thou  art  pushed  hither  and  thither, 
until  thou  sinkest  into  the  mighty  abyss ;  and  tossed 
about  from  deep  to  deep,  thou  wilt  at  last  be  merged 


Israel's  further  fortunes  in  italy  299 

in  the  foaming  waves,  and  none  will  bring  thee  to  life 
again." 

Man. 

"Can  earth's  uttermost  bounds  circumscribe  that  faculty 
whose  seat  is  a  chamber  small  as  the  palm  of  a  man's 
hand?  Such  is  man's  portion  from  God,  the  divine  por- 
tion from  the  spiritual  world.  God  is  in  Heaven,  and 
this  the  only  being  on  earth  that  goeth  to  approach  Him. 
He  explores  the  registers  in  the  scriptures  of  truth,  and 
great  are  his  acts  in  law  and  justice.  Were  it  not  that 
the  accidents  of  life  confuse  him,  and  the  spirit  of  his 
times  confound  him,  nothing  would  withhold  riian  from 
soaring  to  the  skies  to  embrace  the  universe,  until  he 
resembled  the  angels  in  the  true  knowledge  of  excellence. 

Is  it  meet  that  a  beautiful  piece  of  sapphire,  like  this 
[man]  should  be  exposed  to  accidents  and  plagues,  as  a 
target  to  the  arrow? 

Although  exposed  to  subversion  by  worldly  accidents, 
shall  man,  like  the  animals  of  the  field  and  beasts  of  the 
forest,  die,  and  be  no  more? 

Will  this  precious  and  sacred  stone  be  assimilated  with 
clods  of  earth,  and  cast  into  shades  of  oblivion?" 

The  Soul. 

"But  nature,  through  the  wisdom  of  its  Creator,  has 
prepared  within  us  a  source  of  eternal  life,  and  left  to 
us  the  blessed  consolation  of  a  residuary  immortal  soul. 

The  Heavens  for  height,  the  Earth  for  depth ;  but  the 
extent  of  a  comprehensive   heart  is  unfathomable. 

For  thine  association  with  time  passeth  away  more 
rapidly  than  the  evening  twilight ;  and  thou  art  like  the 
child  who  endeavors  to  collect  a  handful  of  the  sun's 
rays,  but  who  stands  astonished,  on  opening  his  hand, 
to  find  nothing  within  it. 

Behold  now  a  sore  evil,  almost  irremediable  ;  lo,  an 
intelligent  being,  evincing  desires  for  purposes  of  no 
avail ! 

Is  such  the  act  of  a  wise  man?  Ought  so  paltry  a 
dish  of  lentils  to  be  deemed  an  equivalent  for  the  noble 
spiritual  birthright  ? 

What  profit  has  he  who,  during  the  vision  of  a  night, 


300  ItlSTORV     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

imagines  himself  a  king,  when,  at  the  very  summit  of 
his  power  and  pride,  he  awakes,  and  finds  it  but  a  dream ! 

If  my  whole  travel  and  journey  be  yet  short  of  the  de- 
sired port,  what  avails  the  length  of  time  employed  in 
the  passage? 

Where  is  the  good  or  wisdom  of  dwelling  in  this  frail 
mortal  habitation,  be  it  for  a  long  or  short  time,  if  in 
beholding  the  good  and  the  evil  I  neither  comprheend 
nor  exert  my  knowledge  how  to  make  choice  of  the  good? 

Shall  I  become  powerful  because  my  imagination  has 
anointed  me  a  king?" 

Baderesi  has  written  many  other  shorter  poems,  essays, 
a  commentary  on  the  "Ethics  of  the  Fathers,"  a  medical 
treatise  and  some  miscellaneous  writings.  A  broad 
scholar,  he  naturally  opposed  the  attempt  to  limit  scien- 
tific study.     He  says : 

"We  cannot  give  up  science,  it  is  the  breath  of  our 
nostrils.    .    .    .    Maimonides'  example  is  our  precedent." 

Notes  and  References. 
Baderesi: 

The  quotations  from  "Examination  of  the  World"  are 
from  the  translations  of  the  Hebrew  Review  and  Dr. 
Chotzner. 

Averroes: 

This  great  Arabian  translator  and  commentator  of 
Aristotle  was  chiefly  studied  by  Jewish  philosophers, 
and  the  preservation  of  his  writings  is  entirely  due  to 
them.     See  article  vol.  ii,  Jczvish  Encyclopedia. 

Israel  Abrahams  in  his  Jewish  Life  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  has  two  chapters  on  the  occasional  congenial  rela- 
tions between  Jews  and  Christians. 

Jeivish  Physicians  and  Their  Contributions  to  the  Sci- 
ence of  Medicine,  Friedenwald,  Gratz  College  Publica- 
tions, 1897. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

Why  was  medicine  a  favorite  study  of  the  Jew? 


301 

CHAPTER    XXXIII. 

THE  MARANOS. 

Forced  Converts 
in  Spain. 

The  golden  age  in  Spain  was  now  over;  the  iron  age 
had  set  in.  Perhaps  the  year  1391  may  be  regarded  as 
the  dividing  Hne,  the  year  when  Christianity  was  forced 
upon  so  many  of  the  Jews  at  the  sword's  point.  That 
the  Cross  was  not  forced  upon  all  the  Jews  of  Spain  is 
not  to  be  put  to  the  credit  of  their  persecutors.  A  wild 
mob  is  hardly  systematic.  Doubtless  as  many  homes 
were  overlooked  as  were  attacked.  Before  all  com- 
munities were  reached  the  storm  may  have  spent  itself. 
Yet  for  the  thousands  who  had  submitted  to  baptism  un- 
der duress  no  return  was  permitted.  This  unnatural 
condition  completely  upset  the  Jewish  status  and  partly 
affected  their  morale.  Omitting  those,  perhaps  the  ma- 
jority whom  the  fanatics  did  not  reach,  and  who  re- 
mained in  statu  quo,  the  rest,  who  had  been  forced  into 
this  unnatural  status,  fall  into  groups  something  like  the 
following : 

First,  those  loyal  at  all  costs,  who  quietly  but  unflinch- 
ingly were  staunch  to  the  faith,  undaunted  by  the  suf- 
fering or  the  death  it  might  entail.  These  were  the 
martyrs.  Some  of  these  saved  their  religious  integrity 
by  escaping  into  Moorish  lands — Granada,  Morocco, 
Tunis. 

Second,  at  the  other  extreme  were  the  worldly  and 
unbelieving.  These  met  the  proselytizing  crusade  half- 
way, content  to  throw  off  the  hampering  restrictions  of 
the  o!4  religion  in  which  a§  materialists  they  almost  a§ 


302  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

little  believed  as  in  the  new  religion  they  now  adopted, 
only  because  it  gave  unrestrained  opportunity  to  am- 
bition. 

If  these  be  compared  with  the  extreme  Hellenists  of 
Maccabean  days,  sixteen  hundred  years  before,  then  the 
'  stavmch  party  deserve  comparison  with  the  chassidiiii  of 
that  same  Greek-Syrian  era.     (T.  Y .,  p.  32.) 

Third,  the  bulk  of  those  baptized  by  force  stood  be- 
tween these  extremes.  They  outwardly  bowed  to  the 
formalities  of  the  Church  under  priestly  pressure.  Tl-tey 
were  called  by  the  Spanish  Maranos,  meaning  "ac- 
cursed." By  their  own  brethren  they  were  more  justly 
styled  Aniisim  (Hebrew  "constrained").  But  the  for- 
mer term  has  clung  to  them. 

They  were  forced  by  this  artificial  status  to  live  a 
double  life.  Outwardly  they  were  Neo-Christians  mum- 
bling the  Catholic  ritual,  bowing  to  the  Cross,  and  bap- 
tizing their  children  in  the  name  of  the  Trinity.  But  by 
conviction  they  were  Jews,  sharing  its  beliefs  and  hopes ; 
in  the  secrecy  of  their  homes  keeping  the  Passover  and 
the  dietary  laws,  circumcising  their  sons  and  contribu- 
ting towards  the  maintenance  of  the  Synagogue  by 
covert  relations  with  the  avowed  Jews. 

Their  situation  became  daily  more  difficult.  For  while 
for  the  most  part  they  intermarried  among  themselves 
and  w^ere  thus  able  to  transmit  the  Jewish  tradition,  alli- 
ances with  them  were  sought  by  some  impoverished 
Spanish  grandees.  Many  again  were  high  in  the  pro- 
fessions, their  children  in  some  instances  even  drawn 
into  ecclesiastical  life — for  in  those  times  of  the  all- 
pervading  dominance  of  the  Church,  it  was  the  surest 
path  to  distinction  and  a  most  naturally  chosen  career, 
and  was  regarded  in  a  secular  spirit  even  by  Christians. 

As  in  earlier  instances  where  persecution  forced  Jewi> 


303 


GHETTO  IN  SIENNA. 


304  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

to  wear  a  mask,  they  regarded  it  as  a  temporary  ordeal 
Some  of  the  monarchs  tolerated  or  connived  at  the 
situation.  But  the  masses  hated  the  Maranos  even  more 
than  they  hated  the  avowed  Jews  because  of  the  prom- 
inent posts  many  held. 

Defenders 
of  Judaism. 

Almost  the  only  literary  activity  in  these  difficult  times 
consisted  of  polemic  articles  written  in  reply  to  attacks 
on  Judaism  by  prelates  or  apostates.  Among  such  de- 
fenders of  the  faith  were  Chasdai  Crescas  (p.  268),  who 
exposed  the  logical  weakness  of  such  Church  doctrines 
as  the  Trinity,  the  Fall  of  Man,  the  Supernatural  Con- 
ception and  Transubstantiation.  Profiat  Duran,  a  Mara- 
no  who  openly  returned  to  the  Jewish  fold,  penned  a 
satire  against  the  Church,  which  the  clergy  considered 
strong  enough  to  burn.  This  was  not  his  only  work. 
He  has  left  us  some  religious  commentaries,  some  scien- 
tific essays,  a  Hebrew  Grammar  and  a  history  of  the 
persecutions  of  his  day. 

Another  definer  and  defender  of  Jewish  theology  was 
Joseph  Ibn  Shem  Tob.  These  writers  on  theology  were 
supplemented  by  pulpit  teachings  of  the  Jewish  preach- 
ers of  the  day  on  the  fundamentals  of  Judaism  and  its 
distinction  from  Christianity.  This  was  not  done  for 
the  purpose  of  bringing  converts  to  the  Jewish  fold — 
that  was  perilous  at  best — but  was  only  an  earnest  desire 
to  preserve  their  own. 

Anti-Jewish 
LaAvs  Enforced. 

So  far  the  government  of  Castile  had  left  the  status  of 
the  Jews  officially  unchanged.  For  King  Henry  HI  had 
not  openly  countenanced  the  persecutions  of  1391 — 
those    being    individual    and    unauthorized.      But    such 


THE    M  ARAN  OS  3<^5 

treatment  almost  condoned,  reflected  public  opinion  and 
led  to  the  reshaping  of  government  relations  toward  the 
Jews.  So  in  the  year  1408,  in  the  regency  of  Juan  II, 
the  anti-Jewish  code  of  Alphonso  the  Wise,  drawn  up 
in  1260  and  so  far  allowed  to  remain  a  dead  letter,  was 
now  for  the  first  time  put  into  practice.  This  removed 
the  last  favorable  distinction  between  the  Jews  of  Spain 
and  those  of  German  states.  As  most  of  the  influential 
Jews  were  now  Maranos,  it  was  easier  to  put  these  laws 
into  operation.  Already  in  1406  an  expulsion  from 
Castile  was  only  staved  off  by  a  payment  of  50,000 
crowns.  The  quarrels  of  the  four  Christian  kingdoms, 
Castile,  Aragon,  Navarre  and  Portugal,  made  the  pres- 
ence of  wealth  producing  Jews  still  a  necessity. 

But  darker  days  dawned  for  them  in  the  appearance 
on  the  scene  of  the  gloomy  Dominican  friar,  San  Vincent 
Ferrer.  Surrounded  by  a  band  of  Flagellants  he  preached 
against  the  degradations  of  the  times.  It  was  not  to  be 
denied  that  society  was  serried  with  corruption.  The 
Church  had  become  sadly  demoralized.  Dissolute  men 
intrigued  against  each  other  for  the  papal  chair.  Un- 
fortunately the  heretic  stirred  the  ire  of  Ferrer  more 
than  the  sinner.  He  was  particularly  bitter  against  Mar- 
anos. Permitted  by  the  sovereign  to  preach  in  the 
synagogue,  crucifix  in  hand,  the  Jews  feared  that  an- 
other  forced  conversion  was   impending. 

As  though  that  were  not  enough,  the  institution  of  the 
statutes  of  Alphonso  was  followed  by  a  severer  edict 
in  1412.  This  later  anti-Jewish  document  was  ingen- 
iously devised  to  make  their  lives  as  Jews  unsupportable. 
To  summarize  it : 

First,  it  robbed  the  Jews  of  power  by  abolishing  their 
judicial  autonomy ;  barred  them  from  public  office ;  and 
forbade  their  carrying  of   weapons.     Next   it  attacked 


3o6  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

their  dignity  and  self-respect  by  imposing  distinctive 
dress,  the  badge  and  the  full  beard  ;  and,  taking  from 
them  the  title  of  "Don."  Then  it  deprived  them  of  free- 
dom, by  shutting  them  up  in  Juderias  and  forbidding- 
travel  or  emigration.  Lastly  it  robbed  them  of  the  bare 
means  of  subsistence  by  cutting  them  off  from  their  rela- 
tions with  Christians  and  forbidding  the  i)ractise  of 
every  handicraft. 

Their  salvation  against  this  venomous  document  lay 
in  its  severity.  It  was  impossible  of  fulfilment.  Some 
of  these  restrictions  were  modified  immediately  on  Fer- 
rer's withdrawal.  But  he  left  Castile  only  to  harass  the 
Jews  in  Aragon.  It  is  said  that  in  both  kingdoms  under 
his  terrible  regime,  some  twenty  thousand  were  forced 
into  the  Church,  thus  further  swelling  the  ranks  of  the 
Maranos,  though  we  learn  elsewhere  that  his  converts 
returned  to  Judaism.  Portugal  alone  dared  refuse  him 
admission,  the  last  Jewish  refuge  in  the  Peninsula. 

Another 
"Disputation." 

Not  even  yet  were  they  to  be  left  alone.  Benedict 
XIII,  one  of  two  rival  popes,  aided  by  an  apostate, 
Joshua  Lorqui,  planned  the  conversion  of  all  the  Jews 
of  Spain  as  a  political  device  to  strengthen  his  hold  on 
the  papal  chair.  (The  Pope  might  have  profited  by  read- 
ing Hadrian's  hopeless  project  to  repress  Judaism  in  the 
year  135  {T.  Y.,  p.  213.)  For  this  purpose  he  arranged 
a  Disputation  between  the  Christian  clergy  and  some 
Jewish  rabbis  at  Tortosa  (Aragon)  1412.  Among  the 
rabbis  summoned  to  answer  the  Church's  charges  were 
Vidal  Benveniste,  who  was  able  to  make  his  plea  in 
Latin  ;  Astruc  Levi,  and  the  famous  pupil  of  Crescas, 
Joseph  Albo.  As  in  a  similar  Disputation  in  Aragon,  two 
hundred  years  earlier,  when  Nachmanides  was  the  Jew- 


THE  MARANOS  30? 

ish  champion,  an  apostate  was  the  chief  opponent.  Then 
it  was  Pablo  Christiani,  now  it  is  Joshua  Lorqui,  but 
known  among  the  Jews  as  Mcgadcf,  the  Cakmmiator, 
for  he  furbished  up  every  anti-Jewish  slander.  The 
Disputation  lasted  twenty-one  months  and  from  every 
possible  biblical  text  either  by  mistranslation  or  allegor- 
ical interpretation,  proofs  of  Christian  doctrine  were 
extorted.  But  the  discussion  was  focused  on  the  ques- 
tion whether  the  Talmud  recognized  Jesus  as  the  Mes- 
siah. Like  his  predecessor,  Nachmanides,  Astruc  Levi 
maintained  that  the  Agada  of  the  Talmud  as  distinct 
from  the  Halacha  was  in  no  sense  authoritative,  it  was 
homiletic  only  (p.  218). 

Like  all  previous  Disputations,  it  failed.  Such  contro- 
versies missing  as  they  must  the  impalpable  spirit  of  reli- 
gion aided  no  creed  while  they  only  degraded  religion 
itself.  A  further  series  of  repressive  laws,  which  the 
pope  in  chagrin  was  about  to  impose  upon  the  Jews  were 
prevented  by  his  own  deposition.  At  this  moment,  too, 
the  bigoted  Queen-regent  Carolina  died.  So  there  was 
breathing  space  for  a  while.  The  friendly  King  Juan  II 
even  permitted  the  calling  of  a  Jewish  council  at  Avila  to 
reorganize  the  demoralized  communities  and  to  re- 
establish Jewish  schools  and  colleges.  But  it  was  not 
to  be  for  long. 

Note  and  Reference. 

Just  as  the  Jews  were  confined  to  Juderias,  the  Moors, 
residing  in  Christian  Spain  were  confined  to  Morerias. 
Read  Heine's  satire  on  a  mediaeval  Disputation. 

Theme  Jor  Discussion: 

Contrast  between  modern  Maranos,  those  who  keep 
their  Jewish  faith  in  the  background  to  escape  prejudice 
and  the  call  of  Isaiah  xliiiao;  xh  :6, 


308  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

CHAPTER     XXXIV. 

ALBO  AND  HIS  "IKKARIM." 

Something  has  already  been  said  of  Joseph  Albo  in  the 
last  chapter  in  connection  with  his  participance  in  the 
Tortosa  disputation.  But  his  philosophy  deserves  a  sepa- 
rate chapter ;  for,  next  to  his  master  Crescas,  he  was  the 
most  important  literary  personage  of  the  first  half  of 
the  fifteenth  century;  and  of  the  two  he  is  far  more 
widely  read. 

Born  about  1380  in  Aragon,  he  was  a  popularizer  of 
the  philosophy  of  others  rather  than  an  original  investiga- 
tor. Such  men  must  not  be  underrated  ;  then,  too,  his 
was  the  last  word  on  Jewish  philosophy  in  Spain.  He 
was  a  famous  preacher,  and  had  a  fascinating  style. 

Judaism's 
Fundamentals. 

His  chief  work  is  called  Ikkarim,  meaning  Roots  or 
Fundamentals.  He  condensed  Jewish  belief  into  three 
indispensable  dogmas — God,  Revelation  and  Retribution. 
The  principles  of  all  great  religions  may  be  expressed 
under  these  three  heads.  But  he  further  elaborates  from 
them  additional  subordinate  principles  or  "branches," 
carrying  out  his  metaphor : 

ist,  God — Divine  Unity  ;  Incorporeality  ;  Eternity  ;  Per- 
fection ;  Crcatio  ex  nihilo. 

2d,  Revelation — Supremacy  of  the  Prophet  Moses; 
Binding  force  of  Mosaic  Law  (until  another  shall  be 
proclaimed  as  publicly  and  before  as  many  witnesses). 

3d,  Retribution — Resurrection  ;  Advent  of  the  Messiah. 

Of  the  Messiah's  coming,  he  remarks :  "It  is  no  essen- 


ALbo  aNd  his  "ikkarim  369 

tial  principle  of  the  divine  law,  which  may  be  accepted 
without  this  article  of  faith."  Perhaps  the  bitter  con- 
troversies around  this  belief  in  public  disputations  may 
have  suggested  this  attitude.  If  so,  then  Albo's  creed 
as  well  as  Maimonides'  reflects  its  times. 

Albo  further  showed  the  influence  of  Christian  envir- 
onment in  making  the  salvation  of  the  soul  the  aim  of 
life.  This  carried  with  it  the  necessity  of  making  faith 
religion's  first  requisite.  But  the  Synagogue  as  distinct 
from  the  Church  makes  obedience  to  law  religion's  prime 
obligation.  (On  this  point  see  T.  Y .,  p.  20.)  More  in 
harmony  with  the  genius  of  Judaism  is  this  admirable 
teaching  of  Albo :  "Perfection  may  be  attained  by  the 
fulfilment  of  a  single  religious  precept  with  whole-heart- 
ed sincerity." 

The  Ikkarim  became  an  important  contribution  to 
Jewish  theology.  Its  production  was  doubtless  prompted 
by  the  attacks  of  the  Church  and  to  that  extent  it  be- 
longs to  the  polemic  literature  of  the  day.  But  it  was 
a  work  that  continued  to  shape  Jewish  thought  for  ages 
to  come. 

It  is  couched  in  a  popular  style  and  in  a  fair-minded 
spirit  of  logical  deduction,  and  it  is  reinforced  by  abund- 
ant quotation  from  Scripture.  It  is  relieved  by  frequent 
illustrations  that  reveal  the  variety  and  at  the  same  time 
the  limits  of  his  general  knowledge.  Here  are  a  few 
striking  passages : 

Religious  Fear. 

Fear  ceases  to  be  meritorious  if  not  accompanied  by 
inward  joy  and  gladness.  [The  word  "fear"  has  two  dis- 
tinct meanings.] 

Religious  Love. 

Love  of  the  abstract  good  is  the  most  pure  and  sub- 
lime that  the  human  heart  can  entertain,  as  it  is  not  influ- 


310  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAF.  VAL     JEWS 

enced  by  enjoyment  to  be  derived,  but  only  by  the  knowl- 
edge that  it  is  good.  (Compare  this  sentiment  and  also 
that  on  "Repentance,"  with  Jjachya,  p.  87.) 

Perfect  love  requires  that  the  lover  should  renounce 
his  own  individual  advantage  and  welfare,  in  order  to 
promote  the  prosperity  of  the  object  beloved;  thus  we 
find  Jonathan. 

Frcczi^'ill. 

That  alone  is  the  truly  free  act  and  deed  of  man, 
which  is  not  done  in  a  hurry,  but  is  the  result  of  mature 
reflection,  and  of  the  consciousness  that  the  alternative 
is  in  his  power,  that  no  external  influence  impels  or  im- 
pedes his  choice  or  controls  his  determination. 

Some  actions  are  predestined,  others  voluntary,  and 
some  influenced  by  both  principles. 

He  says  further,  if  will  were  not  free  man  could  not 
be  responsible. 

Divuic  Omniscience. 

It  is  impossible  that  anything  whatever  should  occur, 
throughout  the  universe,  without  its  being  perfectly 
known  to  the  Deity  in  its  minutest  details,  bearings  and 
consequences ;  as  the  contrary  would  infer  a  want  of 
knowledge  or  ignorance  in  the  Deity,  a  defect  entirely  at 
variance  with  the  Divine  Essence,  which  is  free  from  all 
imperfection. 

God's  grace  can  grant  and  reconcile  gifts  which  are 
contrary  in  their  nature. 

Job. 

The  whole  book  of  Job  is  written  for  the  purpose  of 
solving  the  two  difficult  questions :  Why  do  the  wicked 
prosper?    Why  do  the  righteous  sufifer? 

Providence. 

The  existence  of  the  habitable  earth  is  a  proof  that 
the  world  was  created  according  to  the  will  and  design 
of  Providence. 

Sometimes  the  superintendence  of  Providence  is  made 
manifest  in  the  afflictions  which  befall  an  individual. 


ALBO   AND   HIS      IKKARIM  3II 

We  cannot  cast  any  imputation  on  Divine  Providence 
for  not  excluding  the  wicked  from  the  benefits  of  that 
general  decree  of  prosperity  which  has  been  pronounced 
in  favor  of  the  body  politic  of  which  he  is  a  member. 

The  dispensations  of  Providence,  whether  for  good  or 
for  evil,  are  regulated  by  the  capacity  of  the  recipient 
from  his  being  in  a  certain  frame  of  mind,  prepared  and 
adapted  for  that  dispensation.  (Compare  this  view  and 
that  on  Omniscience  with  those  of  Gersonides,  p.  248.) 

Divine  Justice. 

It  is  possible  that  we  may  be  mistaken  in  our  estimate, 
and  that  while  we  consider  a  man  to  be  wicked  the 
Searcher  of  all  hearts  knows  that  he  is  virtuous.  And 
that  we  may  likewise  be  mistaken  in  our  ideas  of  hap- 
piness, which  attend  wealth  and  power. 

Knozvlcdgc  z'crsits  Experience. 

It  is  inherent  in  human  nature  that  the  evidence  of 
our  sense  should  produce  a  stronger  effect  on  us  than 
what  results  from  previous  knowledge ;  for  example, 
Moses'  seeing  the  golden  calf,  of  which  he  had  been 
previously  informed. 

Blessing. 

The  person  blessing  put  his  hand  on  the  head  of  him 
whom  he  blessed ;  so  that  love  became,  as  it  were,  a 
conductor  to  draw  down  the  Divine  favor,  and  lead  it  on 
to  him  whom  he  blessed. 

Forgiz'cness. 

Sin  is  no  more  completely  beyond  the  reach  of  pardon 
than  man's  power  of  sinning  exceeds  the  divine  power 
of  forgiveness. 

Prayer. 

In  order  that  a  prayer  shall  in  any  wise  be  worthy  of 
Him  to  whom  it  is  addressed,  or  be  at  all  acceptable  to 
Him,  three  things  are  indispensably  necessary.  The  first 
is  that  the  language  be  concise;,  clear,  emphatic  and  sup- 


312  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

plicatory.  The  second  is  that  it  must  be  expressive  of 
the  real  sentiments  of  him  who  prays.  And,  lastly,  that 
the  prayer  be  pronounced  with  humility  and  devotion. 

Sometimes  the  granting  of  his  prayers  is  in  mercy  with- 
held from  man,  inasmuch  as  what  he  prays  for  would, 
if  granted,  be  productive  of  evil  to  him.  Therefore,  the 
choicest  prayer  is  that  ofifered  by  the  sage  when  he  said : 
"Lord  of  the  universe,  let  Thy  will  be  done  on  high,  grant 
content  and  a  tranquil  mind  to  those  who  fear  Thee  be- 
low on  earth,  and  do  that  which  seemeth  good  to  Thee." 

Repentance. 

If  our  penitence  springs  from  a  feeling  of  love  to  God, 
independent  of  any  selfish  admixture  of  hope  or  fear, 
or  expected  reward,  or  dreaded  punishment,  God's  mercy 
and  love  shall  be  as  freely  exercised  towards  us  as  our 
penitence* was  freely  and  purely  excited  towards  Him. 

Like  all  the  philosophers  of  his  day,  he  treats  the 
spheres  as  conscious  beings,  but  wholly  controlled  by 
divinity.  *  He  has  a  very  convincing  argument  against 
astrology — by  instancing  the  founding  of  a  ship  with  all 
on  board  though  born  under  different  stars  and  with  dif- 
ferent fates. 

Faith. 

Faith  is  the  perfect  impression  on  the  soul  of  a  some- 
thing past  or  to  come,  and  which  no  other  impression  has 
the  power  to  gainsay  or  contradict. 

Prophecy. 

Prophecy  is  the  conjunction  of  the  Divine  Spirit  with 
human  reason. 

God  and  Man. 

Although  on  account  of  the  Dispenser  of  revelation 
there  is  an  absolute  necessity  that  what  emanates  from 
God  must  be  uniform  and  the  same  to  the  whole  human 


ALBO  AND   HIS   "iKKARIM"  313 

Species,  yet,  on  account  of  the  receivers  there  is  no  abso- 
lute necessity,  but  that  there  may  be  a  variation. 

Divine  Attributes. 

The  Deity  is  not  only  independent  of  space,  but  is  the 
space  of  the  universe.  Accordingly  our  Rabbis  of  blessed 
memory  use  the  word  mokom,  "place,"  to  designate  the 
Deity. 

When  he  is  called  kadmun,  "The  primary  or  eldest  of 
all  beings,"  this  term  is  only  used  because  language  does 
not  offer  a  more  appropriate  word. 

All  inquii  s  and  philosophers  are  unanimous  in  the 
opinion,  that  we  cannot  assign  to  the  Deity  any  qualities 
either  essential  or  accidental,  except  by  means  of  the 
effects  produced  by  Him. 

When  it  is  said,  "The  Lord  liveth" — if  in  reference  to 
His  works,  the  meaning  is,  all  life  emanates  from  Him, 
therefore  He  must  be  alive  ;  as  without  Him  there  could 
be  no  life. 

It  is  singular  that  that  word  D  D  N  "truth"  is  com- 
posed of  the  first,  the  last,  and  the  central  letter  of  the 
Hebrew  alphabet;  and  therefore  symbolic  of  that  Being 
who  is  past,  present,  and  to  come,  and  whose  seal  it  is 
emphatically  said  to  be. 

Note  and  Reference. 

The  Hebrew  Reviezv,  London,  1835,  Simpkin  &  Mar- 
shall, contains  a  translation  of  the  Ikkarim,  from  which 
the  foregoing  quotations  have  been  selected. 

Theme  for  Discussion : 

Compare  Albo's  principles  of  the  Jewish  Creed  with 
those  of  Maimonides,  pp.  185,  186. 


314  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 


CHAPTER    XXXV. 

THE  HUSSITE  MOVEMENT  AND   ITS  EFFECT 
ON  JEWRY. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  corruptions 
that  were  slowly  eating  their  way  into  the  foundations  of 
the  Catholic  Church.  These  were  beginning  to  be  no- 
ticed with  disquietude  by  its  own  earnest  sons,  and  the 
boldest  of  them  began  sounding  an  tilarm.  The  times 
were  ripening  for  a  new  order  of  things.  But  they 
were  ripening  imperceptibly.  "The  wheels  of  God  grind 
slowly." 

So,  long  before  the  Church  revolution,  or,  as  it  is  bet- 
ter known,  the  "Reformation,"  took  place,  warning 
preachers  appeared.  (This  subject  is  fully  treated  in  the 
concluding  volume.  Modem  Jczvish  History.)  They 
were  but  voices  crying  in  the  wilderness — martyrs  for  a 
cause  for  which  they  prepared  the  way  but  whose  fulfil- 
ment they  were  not  destined  to  see. 

Among  the  more  famous  and  earliest  of  these  was 
John  Wycliffe,  a  man  high  in  the  English  university  and 
the  Church.  He  dared  to  condemn  the  conduct  of  some 
churchmen  and  some  doctrines  of  the  Church.  His  dis- 
ciples became  a  sect  known  as  Lollards,  and  many  were 
burnt  as  heretics.  So  the  first  seeds  were  sown  in  the 
fourteenth  century  and  were  scattered  far. 

John  Huss. 

They  were  blown  across  the  continent  and  reached 
Bohemia.  In  Prague,  John  Huss,  of  peasant  origin,  but 
with  a  distinguished  university  career,  was  fired  by  the 
works  of  Wycliffe,  which  reached  his  hands.     Rector  of 


THE  HUSSITE  MOVEMENT  315 

a  people's  chapel,  he,  too,  entered  the  lists  against  Church 
corruption.  His  first  work  was  an  expose  of  forged 
miracles  and  ecclesiastical  greed. 

A  breach  was  formed  that  gradually  widened  between 
him  and  his  clerical  colleagues,  and  he  was  forbidden  to 
perform  priestly  functions.  But  the  religious  issue  in 
Prague  was  complicated  with  a  racial  issue.  Life's  prob- 
lems rarely  come  unmixed  .  The  native  population  was 
Czech,  but  there  was  a  large  German  settlement  and  great 
antagonism  existed  between  the  two  nationalities.  (It 
exists  to  this  day.)  The  public-spirited  Huss  placed  him- 
self at  the  head  of  the  Czech  party.  So  he  was  the 
people's  hero  in  every  way,  while  for  the  same  reason 
he  earned  the  dual  animosity  of  clerics  and  Germans. 

It  is  beyond  the  province  of  this  volume  to  tell  the 
story  of  his  gradual  breach  with  the  Church.  Suffice  to 
record  here  that  he  was  condemned  by  the  Council  of 
Constance  and  burnt  there  in  1413. 

His  death  brought  a  protest  from  the  Prague  diet 
and  roused  the  indignation  of  all  Bohemia.  The  further 
burning  of  Jerome  of  Prague  by  the  Council  of  Con- 
stance crystalized  the  opponents  into  a  Hussite  party 
with  John  Zizka,  a  soldier,  at  its  head.  They  compared 
themselves  to  the  Israelites  and  the  Catholics  to  the 
heathen  Philistines.  The  historian  Graetz  says  :  "When- 
ever a  party  in  Christendom  opposes  itself  to  the  ruling 
church  it  assumes  a  tinge  of  the  Old  Testamnet,  not  to 
say  Jewish  spirit."  Lecky,  in  his  Rationalism  in  Europe, 
further  declares:  "The  early  Protestant  defenders  of 
civil  liberty  derived  their  political  principles  from  the 
Old  Testament,  and  the  defenders  of  despotism  from 
the  New." 

A  war  was  the  outcome,  which  continued  fitfully  from 
1420  to  1434.     Although  the  Emperor  could  summon  a 


3l6  niSTORV     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     jEWS 

vast  army  to  his  banner  and  mercenaries  came  from  many 
lands,  still  the  Hussites  made  up  in  zeal  for  what  they 
lacked  in  numbers.  In  this  respect  they  resembled  the 
Maccabees  of  old  as  against  the  Greek  Syrians.  But  the 
Catholic  party  was  still  too  strong, — for  the  day  was  not 
yet  at  hand  for  all  Europe  to  be  roused.  That  came 
later.  For  the  time  being,  the  Hussites  were  defeated, 
in  1434.  As  a  political  party  it  disappeared,  but  some 
slight  concessions  were  won.     The  cause  was  leavening. 

The  Hussites 
and  the  Jew^s. 

Now  to  consider  the  relation  the  Jews  had  to  this 
conflict  in  the  Church — for  all  great  questions  touched 
them  in  some  way.  The  Pope  who  held  the  chair  during 
the  entire  struggle  was  Martin  V — not  at  all  a  bad 
man  as  popes  went.  On  his  appointment  a  Jewish  depu- 
tation met  him  with  congratulations  and  gifts,  including 
a  scroll  of  the  Law.  He  received  them  with  the  words : 
"You  have  the  Law,  but  understand  it  not — the  old  has 
been  superseded  by  the  new."  But  his  deed  was  kinder 
than  his  word.  In  response  to  distinct  Jewish  appeals 
against  continued  outrageous  treatment,  he  issued  a  bull 
in  which  he  reminded  Christendom  that  Jews  were  made 
in  the  image  of  God  (some  had  forgotten  they  were 
even  human) — that  they  were  to  be  undisturbed  in  the  ob- 
servance of  the  customs  of  the  Synagogue  and  were  not 
to  be  coerced  to  conform  to  those  of  the  Church ;  that 
their  business  relations  with  Christians  were  to  be  un- 
restricted. The  Emperor  Sigismund,  equally  considerate, 
sent  a  message  throughout  Germany,  in  1418,  to  confirm 
these  privileges. 

But  when  war  broke  out  between  Catholic  and  Hus- 
site all  this  good  was  undone,  for  the  Catholics  rather 


317 


3l8  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

illogically  vented  part  of  their  fanaticism  on  the  Jews ; 
they  were  even  accused  of  secretly  aiding  the  Hussites. 
Like  the  Crusaders,  the  armies  turned  upon  the  Jews 
as  their  nearer  enemies — so  war  was  varied  by  massacre. 
Once  more  we  have  the  sickening  instances  of  Jewish 
parents  mercifully  slaying  their  children  to  save  them 
from  a  worse  fate  at  the  hands  of  barbarians. 

The  Jewish  community  proclaimed  a  fast  for  several 
days,  in  1 421,  and  prayer  for  the  success  of  the  Hussites. 

Martin  V  issued  another  bull,  in  1422,  in  defence  of 
the  Jews,  but  it  was  of  no  avail  against  the  passions 
aroused  by  war.  The  Benedictine  monks  preached 
against  the  Jews ;  the  clergy  made  laws  against  them ; 
Cologne  expelled  them,  and  some  South  German  towns 
burnt  them. 

Persecutions 
in  Austria. 

Austria,  once  tolerant,  now  became  the  storm  centre 
under  the  Archduke  Albert,  who  for  two  sad  years  was 
emperor.  'Twas  he  who,  in  1439,  endorsed  their  expul- 
sion from  Augsburg.  All  the  slanderous  accusations, 
now  worn  threadbare,  were  furnished  against  long-suf- 
fering Israel.  The  rich  were  plundered,  the  poor  ban- 
ished, and  the  alternative  of  the  Cross  or  the  sword 
offered  them  once  more. 

Children  were  taken  from  their  parents  and  placed  in 
cloisters — others  were  burnt,  while  some  forced  con- 
verts escaped  to  live  an  open  Jewish  life  elsewhere. 

The  story  is  told  of  one  youth,  who  renounced  his 
faith  and  became  a  favorite  of  Duke  Frederick.  Later 
he  was  overtaken  by  remorse.  He  firmly  declared  his 
intention  of  returning  to  Judaism  and  joyfully  went  to 
the  stake  a  martyr  to  the  religion  of  his  ancestors. 


THE  HUSSITE  MOVEMENT  319 

Finally,  a  Church  Council  at  Basle  that  sat  from  1431 
to  1443,  inflamed  by  the  Hussite  heresy,  made  the  Jews 
feel  its  fanaticism — by  renewing  all  the  old  restrictions 
against  them  with  regard  to  holding  public  offices,  hiring 
Christian  servants,  wearing  a  badge  and  living  in  a  sepa- 
rate quarter.  In  addition  thereto,  Jews  were  to  be  com- 
pelled to  listen  to  conversion  sermons  and  to  be  de- 
barred from  university  degrees.  Pope  Eugenius  IV  in- 
tensified these  restrictions,  practically  treating  Jews  and 
Mohammedans  as  outlaws. 

In  this  same  Hussite  cycle  of  events  is  yet  another 
story  of  ritual  murder  brought  against  the  Jews  of  Palma 
in  Majorca.  That  the  person  they  were  charged  with 
slaying  was  discovered  alive  and  unhurt  made  little  dif- 
ference. The  occasion  was  used  as  a  pretext  to  force 
the  whole  Jewish  community  into  the  Church  after  hav- 
ing existed  there  for  a  thousand  years. 

Let  us  complete  the  record  of  the  Jews  of  Austria  of 
this  period. 

The  half  century  reign  of  Emperor  Frederick  HI,  from 
1 440- 1 498,  covering  the  regime  of  six  popes,  made  life 
for  Jews  in  German  provinces,  which  included  Austria, 
one  of  unbroken  bitterness  and  peril ;  not  because  he 
was  wicked,  but  only  because  he  was  weak.  Outside  of 
their  cities  of  residence,  they  were  practically  outlaws, 
passive  Ishmaelites  in  that,  though  unoffending,  all  men's 
hands  were  against  them. 

Simon  of  Trent. 

We  will  single  out  from  many,  the  saddest  tragedy 
of  his  reign.  In  1475,  the  accidental  drowning  of  a  boy, 
Simon  of  Trent,  in  the  Austrian  Tyrol,  was  easily  worked 
up  into  the  regular  "blood  accusation,"  with  the  monotony 


320  HISTORY     OF     THE      MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

of  whose  procedure  the  reader  must  be  wearied.   It  meant 
a  virulent  attack  on  the  Jews  and  the  burning  of  many. 

Pilgrims  came  to  view  the  body  and  declared  they  saw 
a  halo  hovering  around  it.  A  church  was  reared  at  the 
boy's  grave,  which  continued  to  be  a  place  of  pilgrimage. 
In  spite  of  the  official  denial  of  Pope  Sixtus  IV  and  his 
refusal  to  permit  Simon's  canonization,  this  "ritual  mur- 
der" is  recorded  in  the  Catholic  book  of  the  "Acts  of  the 
Saints,"  still  in  use — like  the  similar  and  earlier  fiction 
of  Hugh  of  Lincoln  (see  p.  167).  Long  is  the  life  of  a 
lie. 

The  incident  fanned  anew  the  flames  of  fanaticism 
wherever  the  legend  was  told.  Ratisbon  would  have 
slain  its  whole  Jewish  community  were  it  not  for  the 
vigorous  intervention  of  the  Emperor.  The  Jews  of 
Suabia  were  expelled  and  outrages  were  continued  to  be 
imposed  on  those  of  other  communities  for  generations 
afterwards  for    ''lis  mythical  crime. 

Thus  the  fifteenth  century,  like  the  fourteenth,  closes 
in  tears  and  blood. 

Notes  and  References. 

Simon  of  Trent: 

As  late  as  the  year  1899,  in  reply  to  a  similar  accusa- 
tion in  Bonn,  Dr.  Giidemann,  of  Vienna,  declared  that 
"every  blood  accusation  is  a  shameless  falsification  of  the 
truth."  A  suit  was  brought  against  him  for  libeling  the 
Catholic  Church,  since  it  still  officially  recognized  the 
murder  of  Simon  of  Trent! 

"Blood  Accusation": 

Read  Das  Blitt  in  Glauhen  und  Aberglauben  der 
Menschhcit,  by  Hermann  L.  Strack,  professor  of  theology 
in  the  University  of  Berlin. 

In  reviewing  this  book.   Professor   Schechter  writes: 


THE  HUSSITE  MOVEMENT  321 

"The  subject  must  be  more  painful  to  the  Christian 
scholar,  who  naturally  considers  it  as  does  Professor 
Strack,  a  profanation  of  the  name  of  Christ,  and  a  ter- 
rible libel  upon  his  Church.  .  .  . 

"The  book  opens  with  a  precise,  but  full  account  of 
all  the  beliefs  and  superstitions  connected  with  blood 
among  the  various  nations  of  the  world,  both  civilized 
and  savage.  .  .  .  He  shows  how  strange  legends  con- 
nected with  the  host  even  led  to  the  erroneous  belief  that 
early  Christianity  practiced  human  sacrifices.  .  .  .  Chap- 
ter xix  is  devoted  to  the  protests  against  this  slander  of 
the  Jews  by  popes,  cardinals,  bishops,  emperors,  kings 
and  princes,  by  theological  faculties  and  individual 
scholars." 

Dr.  Strack  was  determined  not  to  hold  his  peace  as 
long  as  he  could  "wield  the  sword  of  the  spirit." 

Thus  scholarship  was  brought  to  the  service  of  justice 
and  humanity.  He  has  nailed  a  hoary  slander  that  has 
done  incalculable  mischief  to  Israel. 

An  English  translation  is  issued  by  the  Bloch  Publish- 
ing Co. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

Why  did  the  Hussite  uprising  foment  antagonism 
against" the  Jews? 


322  HISTORY     OF     THE     MKDIAKVAL     JCWg 

C  H  A  P  T  E  R     XXXVI. 

THE  RISE  OF  POLAND  AND  FALL  OF  ROME 

We  must  break  the  continuity  of  our  narrative  for 
a  brief  space  to  trace  the  earHer  history  of  Israel  in 
another  land — Poland.  The  Poles,  a  Slavic  tribe,  entered 
a  little  late  into  the  European  family  of  nations — though 
there  were  later  yet  to  come.  Its  national  history  hardly 
begins  before  the  ninth  century  and  it  did  not  become 
Christian  until  about  the  year  looo.  Erom  that  time  on 
its  fortunes  had  an  alternate  ebb  and  flow  till  the  close 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  then  it  was  all  ebb  until 
its  course  was  rudely  brought  to  a  close  in  the  eighteenth 
century. 

Jews  Form  Poland's 
Middle  Class. 

The  Jews  from  Southern  Russia,  probably  including 
the  remains  of  the  Chazars  (chap,  v.),  found  a  con- 
genial home  in  Poland  as  early  as  the  tenth  century. 
They  came  in  larger  numbers  after  the  persecutions  of 
the  First  Crusade   (1098). 

Driven  from  other  lands,  they  were  hailed  here.  Eor 
the  Polish  population  consisted  of  but  two  classes — the 
nobles,  who  owned  the  soil,  and  the  serfs,  who  tilled  it 
and  who  were  engaged  in  simple  industries.  They 
needed  a  middle  class,  a  commercial  class,  who  would 
bring  to  this  new  country  that  enterprise  needed  to  de- 
velop its  natural  resources.  The  Jews  were  found  to 
be  such  a  people.  They  had  rendered  a  similar  service 
to  Hungary.  It  was  they  who  now  directed  the  work- 
ing of  the  salt  mines  and  who  farmed  the  taxes  and 
customs — though  not  admitted  to  the  handicrafts. 


RISE    OF    POLAND    AND    FALL    OF    ROME  323 

It  is  a  hard  saying  that  the  Polish  population,  just 
because  they  were  less  civilized  and  Christianity  less  or- 
ganized, were  more  tolerant  than  in  those  older  coun- 
tries where  the  Church  held  completer  sway.  Such  had 
been  the  experience  of  Jews  in  Spain  in  the  fifth  century. 
So,  although,  in  1264  and  1279,  Church  Assemblies  met 
in  Bruda  and  enacted  a  series  of  Jewish  restrictions, 
whose  details  are  familiar  to  the  reader  by  their  monot- 
onous reiteration,  they  received  no  local  sanction  and  re- 
mained inoperative  for  many  years. 

Naturally,  the  Jews  were  directly  concerned  in  the 
checkered  career  of  Poland.  They  suffered  under  the 
Tartar  incursion  of  1241,  and  could  not  have  been  un- 
affected by  the  loss  of  Silesia  and  later  of  Pomerania 
through  rival  contests  for  the  throne,  and  by  other  losses 
through  outside  invasion. 

It  was  in  the  year  1264  that  a  charter  was  drawn  up 
distinctly  deciding  the  status  of  Jews  in  Poland.  This 
made  them  an  iDipcriitui  in  iinpcrio,  a  group  granted  a  sort 
of  local  self-government  and  a  limited  local  independence. 
While  this  was  disadvantageous  in  that  it  prevented  more 
neighborly  relations  in  time  of  peace,  it  protected  their 
interests  in  time  of  storm. 

In  1319  their  legal  status  was  equal  with  that  of  the 
Christian. 

Casimir's 
Charter. 

But,  under  Casimir  III  the  Great,  who  reigned  from 
1 310  till  1370,  deservedly  styled  "King  of  the  serfs  and 
Jews,"  and  whose  amiable  aim  it  was  to  restrict  the 
nobility  and  uplift  the  masses, — a  still  more  favorable 
charter  was  granted.  This  gave  freedom  of  residence, 
equal  taxation,  permission  to  hold  landed  property,  and 


324  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

special  legal  rights.  Murder  of  a  Jew  was  to  be  pun- 
ished by  death — this  was  new  for  many  lands.  Casimir 
certainly  stood  alone  in  addressing  the  Jews  as  "our  dear 
and  faithful  subjects."  No  king  ever  tried  so  hard  to 
lessen  their  grievances.  Consequently,  they  prospered 
under  such  favorable  conditions. 

When  the  anti-Jewish  crusade  swept  over  Europe  as 
a  sequel  to  the  Black  Plague,  the  cruel  slander  and  its 
consequent  massacre  tainted  Poland,  too,  for  Casimir  was 
dead.  But  the  numbers  slain  (ten  thousand),  though 
large  absolutely,  were  relatively  small. 

The  turn  of  the  tide  came  with  the  next  king  and  the 
next  dynasty — the  Jagellon.  Commercial  jealousy  plus 
religious  fanaticism  brought  the  change.  The  rising 
power  of  the  clergy  was  demonstrated  in  the  dissemina- 
tion in  Posen  of  the  threadbare  fable  of  a  host,  dese- 
crated by  Jews,  miraculously  shedding  blood.  This  meant 
forced  "confession"  on  the  rack.  We  are  almost  pre- 
pared for  the  next  step.  A  priest  leads  an  anti-Jewish 
riot  at  Cracow,  in  1407.  Then  came  the  Hussite  up- 
rising, when  feeling  ran  high ;  the  restrictive  laws  of  the 
Bruda  Assemblies  of  nigh  two  hundred  years  earlier  were 
now  put  into  practice  for  the  first  time. 

Both  Poland  and  the  Jews  fared  better  under  Casi- 
mir IV,  who  reigned  till  the  fatal  year  1492.  Lithuania 
was  now  finally  united  with  the  land,  many  lost  lands 
were  regained  and  manufacture  and  commerce  grew  by 
rapid  strides,  reaching  their  zenith  in  the  next  century 
under  the  Sigismunds. 

On  behalf  of  the  Jews,  the  broad-minded  monarch, 
Casimir  IV,  renewed  the  charter  of  Casimir  III  that 
had  fallen  into  abeyance.  He  even  declared  that  who- 
ever brought  against  a  Jew  the  charge  of  desecrating  the 


&ISE  or  POLAND  AND  FALL  OF  ROME  325 

host — or  of  using  Christian  blood  for  Passover  without 
being  able  to  substantiate  it,  would  be  put  to  death. 

But  the  Church  of  Poland  had  by  this  time  reached 
the  power  it  had  long  held  further  west — and,  consistent 
with  its  policy,  determined  to  tolerate  no  such  favorable 
attitude  towards  the  Jews,  and  proceeded  deliberately 
to  introduce  the  more  western  state  of  things.  This 
brings  Polish  Jewry  to  the  social  level  of  those  of  Ger- 
many and  Austria  and  our  narrative  to  the  period  in 
which  we  last  considered  their  fortunes  there. 

John  of  CapistranOy 
Inquisitor  of 
the  Jews. 

A  new  persecutor  had  appeared — John  of  Capistrano. 
Each  generation  now  produced  a  new  Pharaoh — we 
might  style  it  "an  apostolic  succession"  of  enemies  of 
Israel. 

Emperors  and  popes  endorsed  the  crusade  of  this  pow- 
erful monk.  His  dire  influence  changed  former  defen- 
ders into  opponents.  A  series  of  oppressions  marked 
his  trail : — 

The  Bavarian  Duke  of  Landshut  followed  the  prece- 
dent of  Emperor  Albert  II  in  fleecing  and  banishing  the 
Jews,  in  the  year  1450.  We  see  the  effect  of  his  preach- 
ing in  the  severity  of  Pope  Nicholas  V,  for  he  carried 
the  crusade  of  restriction  even  into  Italy  and  succeeded 
in  removing  every  vestige  of  favorable  distinction  that 
Still  survived  in  Spain. 

Ferrer  had  been  hard  enough.  But  "the  little  finger" 
of  the  Franciscan  monk,  John  of  Capistrano,  was 
"thicker  than  the  loins"  of  the  Dominican  friar,  Vin- 
cent Ferrer  (p.  305). 

This  fearful  fanatic  was  appointed  "Inquisitor  of  the 
Jews."    It  was  his  business,  as  it  was  certainly  his  pleas- 


^26  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAF.VAL     JEWS 

ure,  to  see  that  every  measure  of  popish  Ijulls  should  be 
relentlessly  fulfilled,  whether  it  was  against  Jews  build- 
ing a  synagogue  or  against  a  Christian  kindling  a  fire 
on  Sabbath  in  a  Jewish  home.  He  saw  to  it  that  no 
Christian  midwife  should  minister  to  a  Jewish  mother, 
even  if  it  meant  the  saving  of  a  life.  From  the  un- 
baptized  outcast  the  milk  of  human  kindness  nmst  be 
withheld. 

So  the  toils  were  closing  around  them,  for  he  carried 
his  blighting  influence  from  land  to  land.  Like  his  pre- 
decessor, Ferrer,  Capistrano  was  a  man  of  great  force  of 
character,  an  ascetic  whose  iron  will  and  persuasive  elo- 
quence were  all-compelling  with  the  superstitious  masses 
who  credulously  believed  his  claim  to  work  miracles. 
Whithersoever  he  came  he  heaped  fuel  on  the  fanaticism 
of  monarchs  and  people  and  transformed  liberals  into 
bigots.  Under  his  regime  we  find  in  many  German  prov- 
inces, reaching  to  Silesia,  children  of  exiled  parents 
handed  over  to  the  Church  to  be  brought  up  in  an  alien 
faith  and  to  be  forever  estranged   from  their   families. 

It  was  he  who  changed  the  broad  and  beneficent  edicts 
of  Duke  Godfrey  of  Franconia  in  favor  of  the  Jews  into 
an  edict  of  banishment  against  them,  in  1454.  It  was 
his  presence  in  Breslau  that  induced  the  people  to  im- 
prison the  Jews,  to  confiscate  their  property  and  to  can- 
cel their  outstanding  accounts.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  a 
fiction  of  a  desecrated  miracle-working  host  was  readily 
fabricated  to  give  a  semblance  of  justice  to  the  out- 
rage. It  was  he  who  pitilessly  superintended  the  torture 
of  some  Jews  until  he  wrung  from  them  a  confession  of 
guilt  for  an  offence  that  had  never  been  committed. 
Then  burning,  baptism  and  banishment  followed  in  due 
course. 

This  was  the  man  whom  the  clergy  brought  to  Poland 


RISE   OF    POLAND   AND    FALL    OF    ROME  327 

to  frustrate  the  liberal  charter  of  Casiniir  IV.  He 
reached  Cracow  in  1454  and  began  his  denunciatory 
preaching.  At  this  psychological  moment,  Casiniir  was 
weakened  by  a  defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  Prussians. 
This  was  the  monkish  opportunity.  With  clergy  against 
him,  it  was  impossible  to  raise  another  army  to  hold  his 
realm  together.  The  bishops  dictated  terms.  They  prom- 
ised aid  in  his  military  proceedings  if  he  revoked  all 
privileges  granted  to  the  Jews.  What  should  he  do? 
They  sought  to  convince  him,  too,  that  the  procedure 
that  would  further  his  ambition  was  also  the  course  of 
piety.  He  yielded.  The  humiliating  badge  on  the  Jew- 
ish gaberdine,  marked  the  complete  degradation  of  the 
Jews  of  Poland. 

The  Byzantine 
Empire. 

It  seemed  as  though  all  the  hostile  forces  of  Christen- 
dom were  closing  around  thepi  and  that  the  knell  was 
to  be  rung  on  European  Jewry.  But  dawn  came  after 
long  night  and  from  an  unexpected  quarter. 

In  the  year  711  the  entrance  of  the  Mohammedan  into 
Spain  saved  the  Jews  of  that  land  from  gradual  but  sure 
extinctipiir.  After  a  lapse  of  over  700  years  s^  similar 
^MTvasion  was  to  save  them  again.  / 

The  Byzantine  Empire,  with  its  capital  at  Cj6nstantino- 
ple,  fell  before  the  triumphant  hosts  of  p\e  Turkish 
monarch,  Mahomet  II,  in  the  year  145^^  That  year 
marks  one  of  the  turning  points  in  the  Dam  Ages. 

To  give  a  brief  survey  of  its  history  :.'fThis  Greek  em- 
pire was  founded  in  395,  when  Theodosius  divided  his 
empire  between  his  two  sons.  From  that  year  there  was 
a  Western    (Roman)    Empire  with  its  capital  at  Rome 


328  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

and  an  Eastern  Empire  with  its  capital  at  Constantinople. 
They  became  also  two  divisions  of  the  Church — West- 
ern Rome  of  the  Latin  (Catholic),  Eastern  Constantino- 
ple of  the  Greek.  While  never  as  powerful,  the  Eastern 
represented  a  vast  territory  overlapping  three  continents, 
with  splendid  opportunities  of  development.  But  it  never 
used  them  wisely  or  beneficently.  Constitutionally  des- 
potic, century  after  century  witnessed  a  series  of  tyran- 
nical abuses.  Through  misgovernment  from  within  and 
enemies  from  without,  it  began  to  melt  away  piecemeal 
(p.  23).  When  the  Mohammedan  swept  triumphant- 
ly westward,  some  of  the  choicest  of  their  eastern 
provinces  were  taken — Palestine,  Syria  and  Egypt.  The 
Bulgarians  robbed  them  on  the  north,  and  the  Venetians 
on  the  south. 

Conquered 
by  the  Turks. 

But  the  greatest  enemy  came  later — the  Turk.  This 
was  a  subdivision  of  the  Turanian  group  in  the  family 
of  races,  whose  empire  spread  from  Mongolia,  moving 
steadily  westward,  reaching  Russian  and  Byzantine  bor- 
ders as  early  as  the  fifth  century.  But  we  are  here  con- 
cerned only  with  that  division  of  the  Turks  known  as 
Ottomans  or  Asmalis,  whom  we  first  meet  in  Western 
Asia  and  who  finally  settled  in  Phrygia.  Here  in  1290, 
Othman  founded  an  independent  Turkish  Empire  and 
gained  a  foothold  in  Europe.  The  unwary  Greeks  were 
foolish  enough  to  despise  their  small  successes,  as  the 
Moslems  in  Spain  had  equally  despised  the  steady  ad- 
vance of  Christians  from  the  north.  But  soon  the  Turks 
had  reached  Adrianople.  A  vast  army,  gathered  from 
Slavonia,  Hungary  and  Italy,  met  with  a  crushing  defeat 
in  1390.    Then  Bajazet  I  ravaged  Servia,  Wallachia  and 


RISE   OF    POLAND   AND    FALL    OF    ROME  329 

Moldavia.  The  capture  of  the  Sultan  by  Timart  gave  a 
half  century  respite.  Next  Macedonia  and  Greece — 
which  had  all  been  included  in  the  Byzantine  Empire — 
fell  in  1450.  It  was  but  three  years  later  that  Mahomet 
II  took  Constantinople,  the  last  relic  of  the  Empire  of 
the  Cfesars.  Its  walls  were  overthrown  by  cannon,  mark- 
ing a  new  era  in  warfare.  Turkey  continued  to  expand, 
both  in  Asia  and  Europe,  and  continued  for  centuries 
one  of  the  greatest  of  European  powers.  The  conquest 
of  Constantinople  was  undertaken  with  all  the  barbar- 
ity of  the  age.  It  was  a  terrible  retribution  on  an  un- 
worthy power,  and  its  overthrow  was  the  extinction  of 
the  unfit. 

Had  there  been  truer  union  in  Christendom,  the  East- 
ern Empire  could  have  been  saved.  But  the  intrigues 
of  popes  and  emperors  and  their  selfish  indifference  to  the 
larger  interests  of  the  Church  and  State  wrought  havoc 
to  both. 

The  stay  of  the  Jews  in  this  empire  had  not  been  a 
happy  one.  Under  its  sway,  the  Patriarchate  of  Palestine 
had  been  abolished  and  they  were  banished  from  the 
Holy  Land.  Justinian's  code  of  "One  law,  one  land, 
one  Church,"  made  repression  if  not  oppression  of  the 
Jews  legal  and  systematic. 

Yet  it  chronicled  no  such  severe  massacres  as  dis- 
graced the  West ;  although  Jews  were  denied  public  office. 
The  famous  traveler,  Benjamin  of  Tudela  (pp.  108-9) 
testifies  to  Israel's  peace  and  prosperity  there.  They 
were  masters  of  silk  culture  and  produced  the  best  silks 
and  purple  stuffs  in  the  Empire. 

Turkey  Becomes  a 
Haven  for  the  Jews. 

It  was  for  the  Jews  of  the  rest  of  Europe  that  the 


330  HISTORY    OF    THE    MEDIAEVAL    JEWS 

Turkish  conquest  was  of  such  saving  and  tremendous 
consequence.  \\'e  have  seen  them  banished  from  Eng- 
land and  France ;  we  shall  see  them  banished  from 
Spain  and  Portugal.  Not  only  was  the  treatment  of 
Ferrer  and  Capistrano  making  life  for  them,  as  loyal 
Jews,  well  nigh  impossible,  in  the  Occident,  but  with  a 
refinement  of  cruelty,  Venetian  shipmasters  were  for- 
bidden to  take  Jews  on  their  boats,  whereby  they  were 
trying  to  escape  to  the  Orient. 

At  this  darkest  hour,  when  their  lot  was  like  that  of 
Israel  in  Egypt,  "making  bricks  without  straw,"  this 
second  Mohammedan  State  became  a  new  land  of  refuge  ; 
for  the  new  monarchy  opened  a  door  of  welcome  to  all 
refugees,  Jewish  and  Christian.  Here  they  were  free 
to  live ;  here  free  to  worship.  So,  the  fall  of  the  Greek 
Empire  did  not  mean  the  fall  of  the  Greek  Church — for 
this  Turkish  Charlemagne  even  regulated  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  Patriarch  over  the  Church  and  a  Chief  Rabbi 
over  the  Synagogue ;  he  chose  a  Jew  for  his  physician- 
in-chie  f    ( Chacham-Bashi ) . 

The  first  Jewish  appointee  (Moses  Kapsali),  was  given 
a  seat  in  the  Divan  (State  Council)  and  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  Jews  of  Turkey,  sanctioning  rabbinical  ap- 
pointments and  regulating  the  taxes.  Here  again  was  a 
Nagid  (an  office  something  like  that  of  Resh  Galutha,  that 
had  been  abolished  in  940  p.  42).  This  territory  be- 
ing the  original  home  of  the  Karaites,  the  dying  move- 
ment now  revived  awhile ;  but  its  intellectual  era  was 
over.  Hither  fled  monk-ridden  Israel  from  Germany 
and  Hungary,  from  Poland  and  the  Rhine — later  from 
Spain.  The  new  refugees  sent  urgent  messages  to  their 
brethren  in  bondage  to  come  to  the  new  Canaan.  They 
were  glowing  pictures  of  a  land  flowing  with  milk  and 


RISE   OF    POLAND   AND    FALL    OF   ROME  33 1 

honey  and  "with  none  to  fray  them  away." — where  they 
could  enjoy  unmolested  the  fruit  of  their  toil. 

With  influential  positions  at  court,  with  unrestricted 
commerce,  with  freedom  of  worship,  movement,  domicile 
and  dress,  there  began  for  them  here  an  era  of  pros- 
perity that  was  to  continue  unbroken  for  two  hundred 
years.  So  the  brand  was  again  snatched  from  the  burn- 
ing and  Israel  was  given  a  new  lease  of  life  once  more. 

Notes. 

Poland: 

Casimir  the  Great  was  the  most  enlightened  monarch 
of  his  age  and  was  called  the  Polish  Solomon.  He  stig- 
matized persecution  as  "an  insult  to  the  common  sense 
as  well  as  the  conscience  of  the  people."  His  welcome  to 
the  oppressed  Jews  to  come  to  his  land  and  his  defence 
of  their  cause  against  the  clergy  occurred  prior  to  his 
love  of  the  Jewish  maid,  Esterka,  and  not  a  result  of 
it,  as  the  story  goes. 

The  Host: 

The  "host"  was  the  name  given  in  the  Catholic  Church 
to  the  consecrated  bread  of  the  Eucharist.  It  is  derived 
from  the  Latin  Jiostia,  victim,  for  it  is  treated  as  a  sac- 
rifice. It  is  unleavened  in  some  churches,  as  it  is  com- 
memorative of  the  "last  (Passover)  sup])er."  The  be- 
lief that  this  bread  becomes  mystically  transformed  into 
the  body  of  the  "Savior,"  is  known  as  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation. 

Greek  Churcli: 

The  form  of  Christianity  of  the  Eastern  Roman  Em- 
pire was  known  as  the  Greek  Church.  Russia  is  its 
centre  today.  Doctrinally  it  is  similar  to  Catholicism ; 
but  it  does  not  acknowledge  the  Pope. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 
Why  was  Poland  more  tolerant  when  less  civilized  ? 


33^  HISTORY    OF    THE    MEDIAEVAL    JEWtJ 


CHAPTER    XXXVII. 

THE  SPANISH   INQUISITION. 

The  story  of  Castile  and  Aragon  a.>  separate  king- 
doms is  drawing  to  an  end.  The  closing  days  in  Castile 
were  stormy.  The  weak  but  well  disposed  Henry  IV 
gave  opportunity  for  uprisings  in  general  and  attacks  on 
Maranos  in  particular.  Alfonso  de  Spina,  a  Franciscan 
monk,  added  his  virulent  and  slanderous  pen  to  the  "good 
cause."  So,  although  the  king  had  a  Jewish  physician 
and  tax  farmer,  the  reactionaries  bullied  him  into  sign- 
ing new  anti-Jewish  statutes.  An  uprising  against  him 
and  the  placing  of  his  brother  Alphonso  on  the  throne 
in  1465,  gave  pretext  for  a  "blood  accusation"  and  mas- 
sacre. Without  such  pretext  a  Jewish  slaughter  occurred 
near  Valladolid  in  1470.  A  Marano  girl's  splashing 
some  wat:r  on  an  image  of  the  Virgin  was  amply  suffi- 
cient reason  for  yet  another  anti-Jewish  outbreak  in  Cor- 
dova in  1472,  which  spread  to  many  towns.  Though  all 
such  attacks  on  Maranos  and  such  edicts  against  Jews 
v.eie  distinctly  against  the  interests  of  the  State. 

Union  of  Aragon 
and  Castile. 

Yet  the  Jews  used  their  means  and  the  Maranos  their 
influence,  which  was  still  considerable,  to  bring  about  the 
marriage  between  the  new  Queen  of  Castile,  Isabella, 
and  the  new  King  of  Aragon,  Ferdinand,  against  much 
State  opposition.  Their  money  suitably  equipped  the  im- 
poverished king  to  appear  suitably  before  Isabella,  and 
he  was  the  guest  in  Toledo  of  Abraham  Senior,  who  es- 


THE  SPANISH  INQUISITION  333 

corted  him  into  the  royal  presence.  For  the  Jews  had 
every  reason  to  expect  well  from  the  royal  pair.  Ferdi- 
nand's father,  Juan  II,  had  been  their  friend  and  a 
Jewish  physician  had  restored  his  eyesight.  So  they 
"put  their  trust  in  princes,"  and  looked  for  betterment 
of  conditions.  In  1474  the  two  kingdoms,  Aragon  and 
Castile,  were  united — comprising  nearly  all  Spain.  It 
became  now  an  absolute  monarchy.  "In  union  there  is 
strength."  Alas,  here  it  was  the  union  of  avarice  with 
fanaticism.  How  fatal  this  united  kingdom  was  to  be 
to  the  destiny  of  Spanish  Israel !  It  introduced  the  In- 
quisition in  Spain.     This  was  the  beginning  of  the  end. 

Origin  of 

the  Inquisition. 

It  is  hard  for  a  Jew  to  write  temperately  of  that  insti- 
tution known  as  the  Inquisition,  yet  we  must  endeavor 
to  recount  it  in  a  historic  spirit.  How  was  it  that  men 
and  women,  much  like  ourselves,  came  to  call  good  what 
we  call  evil,  to  give  religious  sanction  to  what  we  call 
crime,  and  'n  the  name  of  God  should  have  perpetrated 
deeds  so  ungodly?  First,  we  must  discipline  our  imag- 
ination to  depict  an  era  in  which  bigotry  was  almost  a 
virtue,  liberality  almost  a  vice,  and  religious  freedom 
treated  as  a  menace  to  society. 

What  was  then  the  logic  of  the  Inquisition,  at  its 
best,  when  fostered  by  mistaken  but  sincere  men — omit- 
ting its  consideration  as  a  policy  for  political  and  ma- 
terial ends,  which  it  later  became?  It  was  based  first 
on  the  theory  of  an  infallible  Church,  which  in  the  opin- 
ion of  its  priests,  possessed  the  whole  truth  with  regard 
to  God,  the  soul  and  the  future.  From  this  it  follows 
that  all  other  religions  were  in  error  to  the  extent  that 
they  deviated  from  the  theology  of  Christianity.    False 


334  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

beliefs,  it  was  supposed,  doomed  the  individual  to  per- 
dition. Hence  the  obligation  felt  to  eradicate  wrong  doc- 
trine. But  this  theory  or  duty  at  once  made  the  priests 
the  most  dangerous  of  tyrants,  and  the  people  the  most 
abject  of  slaves.  We  shall  see  later  how  this  ecclesias- 
tical power  in  the  hands  of  unscrupulous  men  put  in 
their  hands  the  machinery  for  indulging  their  worst  pas- 
sions. 

The  Inquisition  is  earlier  than  its  name.  Already  in 
the  time  of  Constantine  of  the  fourth  century,  the 
Church  was  given  power  to  deal  with  paganism  and  to 
eradicate  it.  When  we  reach  the  twelfth  century  pag- 
anism was  no  longer  extant  in  Christian  lands.  It  had 
died  cut  or  had  been  wipei  out.  But  there  were  differ- 
ences of  opinion  between  Christian  and  Christian  on  the- 
ological niceties.  Those  who  conformed  to  the  prevail- 
ing phase  of  Christianity  were  called  orthodox,  the  diver- 
gent minorities  were  called  heretics.  Creeds  were  drawn 
up  by  Church  Councils,  less  to  teach  the  faith  to  the 
people  than  to  test  their  orthodoxy.  Heretics,  though 
believing  in  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  the  Church, 
were  given  short  shrift.  The  persecution  and  massacre 
of  the  Albigenses  have  already  been  related  (pp.  141,  149, 
150). 

In  Troyes,  France,  about  the  year  1280  seventy-three 
Jews  were  tried  by  an  ecclesiastical  court  and  burnt  at 
the  stake.  In  the  twelfth  century  distinct  investigators 
or  inquisitors  were  appointed  to  scrutinize  the  fidelity  of 
the  people  to  the  prevailing  Church.  New  institutes  and 
institutions  were  now  coming  into  vogue  that  were 
slowly  and  surely  giving  the  Church  further  reaching 
dominance  over  the  masses.  Auricular  confession  was 
introduced  by  the  Pope,  thereby  granting  to  the  priests 
the  perilous  opportunity  of  extorting  the  secrets  of  the 


THE  SPANISH  INQUISITION  335 

individual  and  his  family.  Special  organizations  of  men 
known  as  Friars,  more  fanatic  than  the  clergy,  were  now 
forming,  whose  function  it  was  to  travel  through  dif- 
ferent lands  to  aid  the  bishops  in  ferreting  out  those  who 
harbored  heretic  views.  St.  Dominic  had  founded  the 
famous  order  of  Dominican  Friars,  who  made  it  their 
special  duty  to  organize  tribunals  for  heresy  trials.  In 
the  year  1229,  at  the  Council  of  Toulouse,  this  Dominican 
Inquisition  was  organized,  taking  from  the  feudal  barons 
and  even  from  the  local  priests  the  power  of  dealing 
with  "infidelity"  among  the  members  of  their  flock.  So 
that  date  might  be  taken  as  the  year  of  the  institution  of 
the  Inquisition  proper.  A  complete  detective  system  was 
planned  by  it.  At  times  unscrupulous  means  were  used 
to  surround  the  defense  with  a  criminal  charge;  and 
since  the  wealth  of  the  accused  went  to  the  tribunal 
it  was  always  in  its  interest  to  convict.  The  institution 
soon  spread  through  France,  touched  Germany  and  en- 
tered Spain. 

The  Spanish 
Inquisition. 

It  was  not  till  it  reached  Spain -that  it  was  invested 
with  full  power  and  went  into  active  operation.  In  Spain 
it  was  reorganized  as  the  "New  Inquisition"  ;  then  its 
real  terrors  began.  A  few  scattered  Jews  had  suffered 
death  at  its  hands  in  other  lands,  but  it  was  in  Spain 
that  it  began  to  write  a  further  bloody  chapter  in  Jew- 
ish annals. 

The  Spanish  Inquisition  of  the  fifteenth  century  was 
a  necessary  sequel  of  the  fanaticism  of  the  fourteenth. 
It  was  against  the  Maranos,  created  by  the  forced  bap- 
tisms of  1 391,  rather  than  against  backsliding  Christians 
that  it  was  directed.    For  while  a  few  had  become  wholly 


;^;^6  HISTORY   of   the    mediaeval   jews 

Christian,  having  lost  the  traditions  of  their  Jewish 
ancestry,  in  very  many  famihes  the  Jewish  rehgion  was 
faithfully  transmitted  and  kept  alive  by  instruction 
from  avowed  Jews — in  some  cases  intensified  by  the 
strained  situation.  The  Maranos  held  high  positions 
among  the  nobility,  in  the  army  and  even  in  the  Church, 
forming  about  a  third  of  the  community.  Yet  it  was 
an  open  secret  that  they  washed  off  the  baptismal  wa- 
ter from  their  children's  heads ;  so  they  were  regarded 
as  the  most  stubborn  heretics  the  Church  ever  en- 
countered. 

The  only  right  w'ay  to  solve  the  situation  was  to  have 
permitted  them  to  renounce  the  creed  that  had  been 
forced  upon  them.  This  was  denied;  even  their  further 
emigration  was  now  prevented.  The  Dominicans  pre- 
ferred a  new  form  of  compulsion — the  Inquisition.  King 
Henry  IV  had  already  been  asked  to  grant  the  introduc- 
iton  of  this  "Holy  Offtce"  into  Spain.  He  had  refused. 
But  now  that  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  were  on  the  throne, 
the  Doniinican  friar,  De  Ojeda,  found  a  willing  response 
to  his  scheme. 

Ferdinand  seized  the  idea  with  avidity,  for  this  avari- 
cious man  saw  in  it  the  means  of  filling  his  empty  coffers 
from  the  confiscated  estates  of  condemned  Maranos.  So 
this  Pharoah,  who  "knew  not  Joseph,"  in  ingratitude 
and  cruelty,  now  proposed  to  reward  the  people  who  had 
aided  his  royal  suit  with  their  wealth  and  influence,  by 
despoiling  and  slaying  them.  He  was  in  desperate  finan- 
cial straits  and  was  imposing  unwelcome  taxes  to  main- 
tain his  State.  Here  was  a  convenient  remedy^presented 
by  the  friars. 

To  the  credit  of  Isabella  be  it  said  it  was  purely  in 
the  interest  of  her  faith  that  she  approved  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Inquisition  in  her  dominions.     So  although 


THE  SPANISH  INQUISITION  337 

the  complacent  bribe-taking  Pope  Sixtus  IV  issued  the 
necessary  bull  for  its  inauguration,  it  was  Isabella  who 
succeeded  in  delaying  its  introduction  for  two  years, 
hoping  at  first  that  milder  measures  might  be  adopted 
for  putting  down  heresy.  She  is  an  excellent  instance  of 
many  a  mediaeval  lady  whom  the  confessional  had  re- 
duced to  spiritual  slavery.  Already  in  her  childhood,  a 
bigoted  and  masterful  priest  had  exacted  from  her  the 
vow  that  when  she  should  come  into  her  kindom  she 
would  begin  a  war  of  extermination  against  heretics. 

So,  as  the  king's  greed  could  no  longer  be  restrained, 
in  the  year  1480,  in  spite  of  energetic  opposition  both 
of  Christians  and  Maranos,  and  in  spite  of  the  expendi- 
ture of  great  wealth  to  counteract  or  further  delay  it,  the 
dreadful  machinery  was  set  in  motion.  Three  Inquisi- 
tors were  appointed  to  judge  and  condemn  heretics  and 
to  confiscate  their  property.  With  malignant  craft  they 
planned  its  modus  operandi.  Some  of  the  following  reg- 
ulations were  instituted  at  once ;  others  mark  later  stages 
in  the  growth  of  its  mechanism. 

A  special  watch  was  placed  over  the  Maranos  to  see 
whether  they  observed  any  rite  of  what  the  Church  was 
pleased  to  style  "the  dead  law  of  Moses."  If  they  were 
seen  to  bless  a  child  without  making  the  sign  of  the 
cross,  or  to  eat  meat  on  a  Church  fast  day,  or  to  read  a 
psalm  without  closing  it  with  the  Gloria  (acknowledg- 
ment of  the  Trinity),  or  if  they  called  their  children  by 
Jewish  names — they  were  immediately  brought  before 
the  dreadful  tribunal.  The  individual  under  suspicion 
was  pounced  upon  without  preparation.  He  might  be 
sitting  quietly  with  his  family  when,  after  knocking  on 
the  door,  bailiffs  would  stalk  in  and  with  the  words,  "in 
the  name  of  the  holy  Inquisition,"  arrest  him.  Guilty  or 
innocent,  the  victim  was  incarcerated  in  a  dungeon  at 


338  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAKVAL     JEWS 

the  pleasure  of  the  tribunal.  The  prison  walls  were 
perforated  with  unseen  holes  through  which  his  every 
action  could  be  watched.  Even  then  he  was  not  in- 
formed of  the  exact  charge  against  him  or  of  the  accus- 
ing witness.  He  was  told  to  confess  his  own  particular 
heresy ;  if  not,  whether  guilty  or  innocent,  he  was  put 
to  the  torture.  The  imprisonment  itself  in  underground 
chambers  with  insufficient  food  was  itself  a  species  of 
torture.  But  the  actual  tortures — performed  in  subter- 
ranean caverns,  so  that  the  victim's  cries  could  not  be 
heard — consisted  of  twisting  the  thumbs  in  screws,  driv- 
ing wedges  against  their  bodies,  or  putting  on  their  feet 
special  shoes  to  inflict  agony.  Sometimes  the  unbearable 
suffering  drove  the  victim  insane ;  it  always  reduced  him 
to  a  hysterical  condition  in  which  he  was  ready  to  con- 
fess whatever  was  desired.  Only  after  the  confession 
was  the  accused  informed  of  the  exact  charge  against 
him.  If  he  had  any  defence  he  could  take  a  lawyer  of 
their  choosing.  When  investigators  were  appointed  they 
hardly  dared  report  in  favor  of  the  prisoner  for  fear  of 
being  suspected  themselves. 

Where  a  period  of  grace  was  allowed  for  voluntary 
confession,  complete  pardon  was  bestowed  only  if  the 
confession  included  the  betrayal  of  other  persons,  so  that 
the  very  confessions  were  cruelties.  Friends  were  en- 
couraged to  betray  friends,  with  the  assurance  that  the 
name  of  the  informer  would  never  be  divulged  to  the 
victim.  Every  individual  was  per  se  a  possible  informer 
against  his  neighbor.  Here  was  offered  awful  temptation 
for  private  malice  or  revenge.  Even  children  were  en- 
couraged to  inform  against  their  parents. 

The  First 
Auto-Da-Fe. 

Such  terribly  complete  procedure  brought  at  once  a 


339 


o 

H 

B 


340  HISTORY    OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL    JEWS 

rich  haul — fifteen  thousand  unfortunates  were  crowded 
into  the  prisons.  The  first  tril)unal  was  set  up  in  Seville. 
On  February  6th,  1481,  the  first  aitfo-da-fc  took  place; 
this  phrase  meaning  "act  of  faith,"  was  applied  also  to 
the  elaborate  procession  to  the  execution  and  its  accom- 
panying ceremonial.  Here  at  the  qusemedero,  place  of 
burning,  six  Maranos  were  burned  alive  and  their 
wealth,  of  course,  confiscated.  But  the  numbers  rapidly 
grew.  In  the  first  year,  though  the  Inquisition  was  con- 
fined to  southern  Spain,  2,300  were  burnt  in  Seville  and 
Cadiz.  Ever  so  many  Maranos  saved  themselves  by 
flight. 

Each  auto-da-fe  was  a  gruesome  spectacle.  A  bell 
tolled  in  the  early  morning  to  summon  the  populace  to 
the  place  of  execution — or  shall  we  say  of  sacrifice — and 
to  see  the  great  procession  arrive.  First  came  the  Bene- 
dictine monks,  bearing  the  flag  of  the  Inquisition;  next 
followed  the  penitents,  their  lives  spared,  but  shorn  of 
their  property.  After  these  followed  the  condemned, 
barefooted,  clothed  in  the  "san  hcnito,"  a  garment  sug- 
gestively painted  with  red  flames  and  fiery  devils,  with 
pasteboard  hats  similarly  decorated.  Each  carried  a 
green  candle  in  the  hand.  Next  the  effigies  of  escaped 
victims,  whose  property  was  to  be  confiscated  even 
though  in  the  hands  of  heirs  faithful  to  the  church.  At 
the  rear  of  the  procession  were  brought  black  coffins  con- 
taining the  bones  of  those  adjudged  heretics  after  their 
deaths,  the  property  of  whose  heirs  was  likewise  seized. 
Thus  none  escaped  this  relentless  institution  which  fol- 
lowed up  its  victims  with  ignominy  even  beyond  the 
grave. 

An  officer  now  struck  each  prisoner  a  blow  on  the 
breast  indicating  that  they  were  given  over  to  the  "secu- 
lar arm"— ?".  e.,  the  State,    This  was  done  to  keep  up  the 


fiction  that  the  Church  itself  never  shed  blood.  The  pris- 
oners were  then  fettered.  If  they  confessed  at  this  last 
moment  they  were  strangled  before  burning;  the  "unre- 
pentant" were  burnt  alive. 

The  debauched  public  came  to  enjoy  the  sight  of  their 
fellowmen  done  to  death.  Grotesquely  treated  as  a  holy 
pageant,  the  auto-da-fe  usually -took  place  on  Sunday. 
It  often  lasted  from  early  morn  till  late  at  night  if  the 
supply  of  victims  was  sufficiently  plentiful.  Sometimes 
there  were  so  many  that  they  could  not  supply  separate 
stakes  for  each,  but  had  to  build  a  series  of  pens  which 
could  be  ignited  the  more  easily.  So  Titus  in  the  year 
69  had  not  sufficient  crosses  to  crucify  his  Jewish  pris- 
oners. 

The  executions  and  confiscations  that  were  really  mur- 
ders and  robberies  were  not  permitted  to  go  on  without 
protest.  Even  Pope  Sixtus,  who  cared  only  for  revenue, 
was  induced  to  issue  a  reprimand  to  prevent  a  scandal. 
He  refused  Ferdinand  the  permission  to  set  up  the  tri- 
.  bunal  in  other  Spanish  provinces.  But  the  refusal  was 
withdrawn  on  the  plea  of  gold,  and  in  1482  the  Inquisi- 
tion was  introduced  in  Aragon  and  in  Sicily,  which  was 
allied  with  it.  Its  terrors  also  penetrated  to  the  adjacent 
islands,  Barcelona  and  Majorca.  When  the  mercenary 
aim  was  so  patent  as  even  to  awaken  Christian  indig- 
nation, Sixtus  again  mildly  advised  restriction  to  save 
appearances.  But  every  favorable  bull,  for  which  he 
was  richly  paid,  was  always  ultimately  withdrawn  on 
receiving  a  larger  compensation  from  the  .  Inquisition 
side. 

Torquemada. 

In  1483  Thomas  de  Torquemada,  a  Dominican  monk, 
was  appointed  Inquisitor  General.  Practically  all  Spain 
now  came  under  his  cruel  control.     During  his  fifteen 


342  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

years'  regime  the  Inquisition  reached  its  chmax  in  the 
completeness  of  its  incriminating  devices.  He  quelled 
all  opposition.  The  slaying  of  an  Inquisitor  in  Sara- 
gossa  (Aragon)  gave  revengeful  opportunity  for  the 
slaughter  of  two  hundred  souls  and  the  holding  of 
two  auto-da-fes  monthly  in  that  city  for  twenty  years. 
In  Toledo,  Torquemada  dared  to  bid  the  rabbis  pro- 
nounce a  chcrcm  (excommunication)  against  the  Jews 
who  refused  to  inform  the  authorities  of  the  secret  lapse 
of  Maranos,  i.  e.,  to  hand  over  their  own  brethren  in 
blood  and  faith  to  their  enemies  for  destruction !  In  the 
year  i486  nearly  twenty-five  hundred  were  burnt  in  To- 
ledo alone,  and  nigh  a  thousand  subjected  to  humiliating 
penance. 

The  tribunal  revealed  varied  types  of  character.  Some 
saving  themselves  by  confession  were  readmitted  to  the 
Church.  Others  voluntarily  went  to  the  stake,  glad  to 
become  martyrs  for  their  religion.  The  butcheries  were 
kept  going  at  a  merry  pace — in  Catalonia,  in  spite  of 
strong  opposition ;  in  Barcelona  and  Majorca  two  hun- 
dred were  burned  in  1487. 

During  Torquemada's  fifteen  years  in  office  he  con- 
demned over  8,000  souls  to  be  burnt  alive.  During  the 
regime  of  his  successor,  the  Dominican  Deza,  and  Lu- 
cero,  his  assistant,  two  men  of  infamous  repute,  1,600 
victims  were  sacrificed  at  this  blazing  Tophet.  During 
all  this  carnage  the  monarchs  sat  serene.  For  the  im- 
prisonments and  burnings  now  conducted  on  a  wholesale 
scale  brought  in  splendid  revenues. 

No  wonder  that  Ferdinand's  successors  continued  it 
and  the  Philips  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  that  Charles 
V  should  have  prevented  Pope  Leo  X  from  issuing  a 
bull  restricting  the  powers  of  the  "Holy  Office."  So  this 
blighting    institution    was    destined    to    continue   till    the 


THE  SPANISH  INQUISITION  343 

early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Its  three  century 
regime  is  dyed  deep  with  the  blood  of  thirty-two  thou- 
sand souls. 

Notes  and  References. 

The  Inquisition: 

Dr.  Henry  C.  Lea  writes,  in  his  Inquisition  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages: 

"It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  for  the  infinite  wrongs, 
committed  on  the  Jews  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  for 
the  prejudices  that  are  even  yet  rife  in  many  quarters, 
the  Church  is  mainly,  if  not  wholly,  responsible.  It  is 
true  that  occasionally  she  lifted  her  voice  in  mild  re- 
monstrance when  some  massacre  occurred  more  atrocious 
than  usual,  but  these  massacres  were  the  direct  outcome 
of  the  hatred  and  contempt  which  she  so  zealously  incul- 
cated, and  she  never  took  steps  by  punishment  to  pre- 
vent their  repetition." 

Read  "The  Inquisition  in  Judaism,"  a  sermon  ad- 
dressed to  Jewish  martyrs  on  the  occasion  of  an  auto- 
da-fe,  and  a  reply  by  Carlos  Vero,  translated  by  Moses 
Mocatta.     London:  Wertheimer,  1845. 

One  voice  alone  was  raised  in  defense  of  the  victims 
of  the  Inquisition,  that  of  Hernando  del  Pulgar.  His 
moderate  rebuke  brought  on  him  a  charge  of  heresy. 
Hence  all   further  defenders  were  silenced. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

Did  the  Inquisition  aid  or  injure  the  cause  of  Chris- 
tianity ? 


344  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

CHAPTER    XXXVIII. 
THE    SPANISH    EXPULSION. 

The  Inquisition  was  not  ostensibly  directed  against 
professing  Jews,  but  against  neo-Christians  suspected 
of  being  Jews.  It  concerned  itself  with  the  heretic 
within  the  Church,  not  with  the  "unbeliever"  outside  of 
it.  But  with  this  very  programme,  ultimately  it  reached 
the  Jew.  For  these  Maranos  desiring  that  their  children 
be  secretly  reared  in  the  tenets  of  Judaism,  needed  the 
co-operation  of  their  brethren  in  faith,  to  supply  them 
with  prayerbooks  and  manuals,  to  inform  them  of  the 
occurrence  of  the  Jewish  holidays  and  to  send  them 
matzoth  on  Passover. 

It  is  true  that  prior  to  the  introduction  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion the  Jews  were  confined  to  their  Juderias  in  order 
to  separate  them  from  both  Maranos  and  Christians. 
But  even  after  the  institution  of  the  "Holy  Office"  its 
alert  spies  could  not  always  prevent  the  prohibited  inter- 
course. Some  Christians  still  preferred  entrusting  their 
sick  to  Jewish  physicians  and  had  more  confidence  in 
Jewish  lawyers. 

Granada  Passes 
from  Moslem 
to  Christian. 

In  the  meantime  a  great  event  occurred  that  indirectly 
tended  to  bring  the  Jewish  status  to  a  crisis.  In  1491, 
after  a  ten-year's  contest,  their  last  stronghold  in  the 
Peninsula — Granada — was  taken  from  the  Moors.  It 
was  in  711  that  the  triumphant  legions  of  the  Crescent 
had  reached  Spain.    That  advent  (with  which  this  work 


THE  SPANISH   EXPULSION  345 

opens)  made  an  epoch  for  the  Jew,  for  Spain  and  for 
the  world.  Their  nigh  eight  hundred  years'  regime 
which  offered  the  favorable  environment  for  a  golden 
era  for  Jews  and  Judaism,  and  which  had  established  a 
centre  of  enlightening  culture  in  the  midst  of  Europe's 
dark  ages,  came  at  last  to  an  inglorious  close.  Spain 
was  now  a  wholly  Christian  land.  But  instead  of  suc- 
cess bringing  toleration  it  brought  fanaticism  to  a  climax. 
This  was  its  logic:  "Why  should  a  Christian  realm  any 
longer  harbor  the  enemies  of  the  Cross?"  The  Jew  was 
a  thorn  in  its  side  and  helped  to  maintain  the  intolerable 
Marano  situation.  Granada  had  brought  a  rich  loot  to 
the  State  which,  together  with  the  booty  acquired  by 
the  Inquisition,  made  the  financial  aid  of  the  Jews  no 
longer  necessary. 

So  on  March  31st,  1492,  was  issued  the  terrible  procla- 
mation that  within  four  months  the  Jews  must  leave 
Castile,  Aragon,  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  on  penalty  of  death. 

Abarbanel. 

Who,  at  this  critical  hour,  was  at  the  head  of  Spanish 
Israel?  In  these  bitter  times,  strange  to  say,  Isaac  Abra- 
vanel  (or  Abarbanel),  a  refugee  from  Portugal,  was 
still  engaged  in  the  service  of  the  State — for  he  was  a 
financial  genius.  He  was  a  scholar,  too.  He  had  writ- 
ten some  Bible  commentaries  and  some  apologetic  wor-ks 
in  defense  of  Judaism,  which  were  widely  read  both  by 
Jews  and  Christians  of  a  later  day.  For  he  was  at  home 
in  the  writings  of  the  Church  as  well  as  of  the  Syna- 
gogue. He  was  also  something  of  a  philosopher,  but  he 
has  little  to  tell  us  of  value  in  that  field.  He  lacked  the 
logical  and  analytic  mind  to  distinguish  between  ration- 
alism and  mysticism,  though  he  seemed  to  grasp  better, 
perhaps,   than   most  Jewish   scholars  the   historic  back- 


346 


HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 


ground  of  each  era.  But  his  greatness  lay  in  his  knowl- 
edge of  "affairs."  Indeed  he  was  the  last  of  that  line  of 
Spanish  statesmen  that  began  with  Samuel  Ibn  Nagdela 
(chap.  viii). 

It  was  this  man  who,  now  that  the  edict  had  gone 

forth,  concentrated  all  his  efforts  to  avert  the  blow.     He 

appeared  before  Ferdinand — so  runs  one  story — accom- 


ISAAC  ABARBANEL 

panied  by  some  Christian  friends  and  guaranteed  to  col- 
lect 600,000  crowns  (30,000  ducats)  if  the  Jews  could 
be  permitted  to  stay.  Ferdinand,  the  avaricious,  hesi- 
tated. Then  Torquemada,  the  bigoted  Inquisitor  Gen- 
eral, theatrically  entered  the  presence  of  the  King  and 
holding  aloft  a  silver  crucifix,  cried  out,  "Judas  Iscariot 
sold  the  Savior  for  thirty  pieces  of  silver;  would  you 
sell  him  for  thirty  thousand  ducats  ?"    That  clever  thrust 


THE  SPANISH   EXPULSION  347 

told.     It  decided  the  really  religious  though  fanatic  Isa- 
bella.   The  Jews  must  go. 

Jews  Expelled 
in  1492. 

Like  Haman's  edict  of  extermination  on  the  Jews  of 
Persia,  fell  the  edict  of  expulsion  on  those  of  Spain. 
But  there  was  no  Esther  on  the  throne  to  redeem  them 
now.  For  fifteen  centuries  Jews  in  smaller  or  greater 
numbers  had  lived  in  Spain.  In  this  as  in  some  other 
European  countries,  their  settlement  preceded  the  intro- 
duction of  Christianity.  We  have  to  go  back  twelve 
centuries  to  find  the  first  discrimination  against  the  Jews 
by  the  Spanish  Church.  As  much  as  any  land  could  be 
home,  Spain  was  home  to  them ;  aye,  and  more  than  any 
other  European  land.  For  England  had  expelled  her 
16,000  Jews  in  1290,  and  the  embargo  had  not  yet  been 
lifted.  Their  history  in  France  was  so  far  largely  made 
up  of  a  series  of  expulsions.  In  the  different  German 
States  their  tenure  had  always  been  precarious.  In 
Poland  they  had  only  settled  for  two  or  three  centuries. 
In  other  lands  their  numbers  were  insignificant;  while 
Northern  lands  they  had  hardly  reached  at  all. 

In  Spain  they  had  dwelt  longer  than  Israel  and  Judah 
had  lived  in  Canaan!  For  from  the  monarchy  of  Saul, 
about  iioo  B.  c.  E.  to  the  Babylonian  exile  was  but  five 
hundred  years ;  from  the  Exile  to  their  final  overthrow 
and  dispersion  was  barely  seven  hundred  more.  But  no 
Titus'  arch  was  to  be  erected  to  mark  their  banishment 
now.  Yet  next  to  that  dispersion  in  the  year  70,  by 
Rome,  it  was,  considered  in  all  its  consequences,  per- 
haps the  most  terrible  calamity  in  Israel's  tragic  annals. 

The  edict,  cruel  in  its  general  character,  was  still  more 
cruel  in  its  details.  For  the  avaricious  Ferdinand  utilized 
it  as  a  means  of  despoiling  the  Jews  as  he  had  used  the 


lllSfO&Y   OP   THE    MEDIAEVAL   JEWS 

Inquisition  with  which  to  despoil  the  Maranos.  The 
exiled  Jews  were  forbidden  to  take  with  them  gold,  sil- 
ver, money  or  non-exportable  articles.  Their  houses  and 
lands  they  had  to  dispose  of  for  trifles — a  vineyard  for 
a  piece  of  linen!  Their  synagogues  became  churches, 
their  schools  monasteries. 

It  is  true  that  money  can  be  transmitted  by  commer- 
cial notes  or  bills  of  exchange  (invented  by  the  Jews  by 
proverbial  necessity).  But  these  are  comparatively  mod- 
ern devices.  We  have  already  indicated  in  chap,  xxxii 
that  Italy  was  the  only  land  where  anything  like  these 
modern  conditions  prevailed.  Where  they  prevailed  in 
Spain  at  all,  they  were  in  the  hands  of  Jews  (and  Mar- 
anos) who  had  developed  a  genius  for  finance;  some 
slight  avail  was  made  of  it  now.  How  pathetic  it  is  to 
read,  that  not  allowed  to  take  the  precious  metals  or 
coin  with  them,  some  carried  away  fragments  of  the 
tombstones  of  their  ancestors.  No  preventive  edict  in- 
terfered there ! 

In  Aragon,  where  Ferdinand  had  more  exclusive  con- 
trol, all  Jewish  monies  and  debts  were  confiscated — this 
as  a  means  of  forcing  the  impoverished  victims  into  the 
Church.  This  brought  out  at  least  the  lights  in  this 
dark  picture.  Persecution  revealed  the  faith  and  hero- 
ism of  this  long-suffering  people.  For  although  even 
emigration  zvas  not  made  possible  for  all,  as  between 
apostacy  and  martyrdom  few  chose  the  former.  Never, 
too,  was  the  Jewish  dictum  "All  Israelites  are  responsi- 
ble one  for  the  other"  more  nobly  fulfilled.  The  rich 
shared  with  the  poor  the  remnants  of  their  fortunes 
"snatched  from  the  burning."  Maranos  also  aided  their 
brethren  at  the  peril  of  their  lives. 

It  was  on  August  2d,  strangely  coincident  with  the 
ninth  of  Ab   (so   fatally  significant  in  Jewish  annals), 


THE  SPANISH  EXPULSION  349 

that  Israel  took  up  the  wanderer's  staff  and  left  the  in- 
hospitable land.  Not  a  triumphant  exodus,  "with  a  high 
hand,"  as  from  Egypt,  but  a  humiliating  exit.  Thus  (at 
the  lowest  estimate)  two  hundred  thousand  observers 
of  what  the  Inquisition  called  "the  dead  Law  of  Moses" 
shook  the  dust  of  Spain  from  their  feet  without  know- 
ing where  they  would  find  a  place  to  lay  their  heads. 

The  loss  was  not  all  theirs.  Many  towns  dwindled 
into  villages  after  their  departure.  With  the  expulsion 
of  the  Jews  (and  with  the  later  banishment  of  the 
Moors)  Spain  lost  her  most  industrious  subjects — her 
merchants,  her  artisans,  her  scholars,  and  her  healers. 
Retribution  was  to  come,  but  not  at  once.  The  new 
wealth,  the  new  conquests,  the  acquired  realm  beyond 
the  seas,  all  brought  for  a  while  greater  prestige  to 
Spain  and  she  reached  her  zenith  when  her  Charles  V 
was  chosen  Emperor.  Then  came  the  anti-climax.  The 
Inquisition  that  temporarily  brought  wealth  to  Spain 
ultimately  ruined  it. 

Havens  of 
Refuge. 

To  follow  the  exiles.  Many  took  refuge  in  Portugal, 
and  of  their  fate  we  will  tell  in  the  following  chapter. 
Some  twelve  thousand  were  given  a  short  respite  in  Na- 
varre. But  heartless  Ferdinand  followed  them  there 
and  compelled  Navarre  to  offer  them  choice  of  baptism 
or  exile.  The  rest  had  to  embark  in  the  ships  provided 
by  the  king  to  sail  to  whatever  ports  would  give  them  an 
entry.  But  open  doors  were  few.  Overcrowding  in 
the  ships  brought  the  natural  consequence  of  contagious 
disease,  which  would  bar  admission  to  refugees  even 
today.  Some  of  the  hapless  exiles  had  to  encamp  in 
open  plains,  like  the  earlier  fugitive  Israel  in  the  wil- 
derness, in  earlier  flight  from  Egypt.     Many  starved  to 


350  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

death.  Many  to  save  themselves  from  starvation  re- 
turned in  despair  to  Spain  to  accept  Christianity.  It 
meant  bread  for  their  children.  Some  of  these  may  have 
gone  to  swell  the  ranks  of   Maranos   elsewhere. 

Italy,  the  progressive,  for  the  most  part,  received  them 
kindly.  Naples  hospitably  opened  its  doors.  Nor  would 
its  humane  king  drive  them  forth — in  si)ite  of  the  pro- 
tests of  his  people,  when  pestilence,  due  to  their  treat- 
ment on  the  ships  of  passage,  broke  out  among  them. 
He  even  established  hospitals  for  their  sick.  Hither 
came  Abarbanel,  not  too  despairing  of  heart  to  continue 
his  literary  labors.  Great  men  are  rarely  allowed  to 
linger  in  obscurity ;  just  as  he  was  chosen  by  the  Spanish 
State  when  driven  from  Portugal,  so  now  he  was  of- 
fered a  post  of  financial  responsibility  in  Naples  when 
driven  from  Spain.  Fresh  woes  yet  awaited  him  and 
his  more  scholarly  son  Leon.  In  the  evening  of  his 
life  we  find  adverse  fortune  had  driven  him  to  Venice. 
Even  here  his  genius  for  financial  administration  sin- 
gled him  out  for  distinction  and  counsel. 

Across  the  narrow  stretch  of  the  jNIediterranean  to 
Africa,  many  refugees  sailed.  But  only  permitted  to 
build  huts  outside  the  town  walls,  many  starved  to  death 
and  some  children  were  sold  as  slaves. 

We  have  not  space  to  tell  of  the  sufferings  and  indig- 
nities they  encountered  when  knocking  at  the  doors  of 
most  of  the  "civilized"  nations  of  the  world.  When 
nature  ceased  her  ravage  with  famine  and  plague,  man 
began  with  lust  and  greed.  They  well  might  have  cried 
with  the  Israel  that  fled  from  Egypt:  "Were  there  no 
graves  in  Spain  that  we  need  have  left  it  to  be  slain  in 
other  lands?" 

Genoa,  unlike  Naples,  only  allowed  them  to  encamp 
on  the  shore.    When  their  starving  children  drifted  into 


THE  SPANISH   EXPULSION  351 

the  town  they  were  given  bread  on  condition  of  baptism. 
The  renunciation  of  Judaism  was  also  the  basis  of  ad- 
mission at  other  ports.  In  some,  their  own  brethren 
were  induced  to  reject  them  for  fear  of  the  plague.  But 
the  compassionate  Jews  of  Greece  sold  their  synagogue 
ornaments  to  feed  their  brethren  and  redeem  them  from 
slavery. 

Well  treated  in  Spain  while  it  was  Moslem,  it  was  a 
Moslem  land  that  now  gave  them  heartiest  welcome — 
Turkey  (p.  330).  The  Sultan  Bajazet  II  threatened 
with  death  whoever  dared  oppress  them.  The  bulk  of 
the  Jews  in  Turkey  to-day,  or  in  the  larger  Turkey  of 
yesterday,  are  descendants  of  the  exiles  from  Spain. 

The  wanderings  of  smaller  groups  we  cannot  follow 
in  detail,  nor  have  we  space  to  record  their  privations 
and  sufferings,  of  which  stories  have  come  down  to 
us  from  many  quarters  and  in  many  forms.  Spanish 
exiles  were  to  be  found  in  Alexandria  and  Morocco  in 
Asia  Minor,  in  the  East  and  the  West  Indies,  in  the  Old 
and  the  New  World. 

In  North  and  South  America  those  denied  the  right 
of  being  allies  of  Spain  at  home  became  its  rivals  abroad 
— diverting  its  trade  to  Holland  and  Italy.  Thus  was 
Israel  enabled  to  show  gratitude  to  its  friends  and  visit 
retribution  on  its  foes. 

Lines  on  the  Expulsion. 

"Look,  they  move!     No  comrades  near  but  curses; 
Tears  gleam  in  beards  of  men  sore  with  reverses; 
Flowers   from  fields  abandoned,   loving  nurses ; 
Fondly  deck  the  woman's  raven  hair. 

Faded,   scentless   flowers  that   shall   remind  them 
Of  their  precious  homes  and  graves  behind  them; 
Old  men,  clasping  Torah-scrolls,  unbind  them, 
Lift  the  parchment  flags  and  silent  lead. 


352  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

Mock  not  with  thy  Hght,  O  sun,  our  morrow. 
Cease  not,  cease  not,  O  ye  songs  of  sorrow ; 
From  what  kind  a  refuge  can  we  borrow, 
Weary,  thrust-out,  God-forsaken  we? 

Could   ye,    suff'ring   souls,    peer   through   the    Future, 
From  despair  ye  would  awake  to  rapture ; 
Lo !    The  Genoese  boldly  steers  to  capture 
Freedom's  realm  beyond,  an  unsailed  sea!" 

Translated  from  the  German  of  Liidz^'ig  August  Frankl 
bv  Minnie  D.  Louis. 

Notes  and  References. 
The  Expulsions  of  Jews  and  Moors: 

As  late  as  1480  the  Spanish  Cortes  decided  that  He- 
brews and  Mohammedans  should  be  assigned  certain  dis- 
tricts, where  they  could  live  freely  and  build  syna- 
gogues and  mosques.  Therefore,  Ferdinand  did  not  con- 
sult the  Cortes  on  the  edict  of  expulsion. 

The  expulsion  of  the  Moors  of  Granada  was  in  viola- 
tion of  treaty,  since  they  had  yielded  on  condition  that 
religious  liberty  should  be  granted  to  them  and  their 
posterity.  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  took  an  oath  to  that 
effect.  But  the  Primate  of  Spain,  Ximenes,  told  them 
they  were  under  no  obligation  to  tolerate  the  Moslem. 
Therefore,  when  the  Moors  resisted  his  attempt  to  force 
Christianity  upon  them,  he  informed  the  monarchs  that 
their  rebellion  absolved  them  from  their  compact. 

The  expulsions  were  followed  by  the  decline  of  civic 
liberty  of  the  Spaniards. 

Read  Religious  Intolerance  in  Spain.     De  Castro. 
Theme  for  Discussion: 

To  what  extent  may  Spain's  decline  be  attributed  to 
the  banishment  of  the  Jews  and  Moors? 


353 


CHAPTER     XXXIX. 

LAST   YEARS    IN   PORTUGAL. 

Toleration  had  lingered  a  little  longer  in  Portugal. 
The  badge  had  been  imposed  by  Alphonso  IV  in  1325, 
but  then  his  successor  had  removed  it.  While  fanaticism 
raged  in  1391  in  Spain,  there  was  still  sanity  and  secur- 
ity in  Portugal.  John  (or  Joao),  141 1,  whose  hfe  had 
been  saved  by  the  high-minded  David  Negro,  naturally 
befriended  his  savior's  co-religionists.  As  in  Spain  they 
were  singled  out  for  royal  distinction  on  the  one  hand, 
and  had  to  run  the  gauntlet  of  ecclesiastical  hate  on  the 
other. 

The  long  and  kindly  reign  of  Alphonso  V,  from  1438 
to  1481,  mark  the  last  favorable  years  for  Israel  in  the 
Peninsula.  The  attack  on  the  Juderia  of  Lisbon  in  1449 
did  not  meet  with  his  approval.  It  was  he  who  ap- 
pointed Isaac  Abarbanel  State  Treasurer.  As  long  as 
the  power  was  his,  this  last  Jewish  statesman  showed 
himself  a  friend  in  need  to  his  brethren.  It  was  his 
energy  and  means  that  helped  to  free  Jewish  captives 
made  slaves  in  Morocco. 

But  as  soon  as  the  crafty  John  II  came  to  the  throne, 
toleration's  knell  was  rung.  Only  the  timely  warning  of 
a  friend  enabled  Abarbanel  to  escape  to  Spain  with  his 
life.  Here  his  gifts  were  brought  to  the  royal  notice  and 
Ferdinand  found  him  valuable  in  financing  the  Moorish 
war  and  in  provisioning  the  army.  His  attempt  to  stay 
the  expulsion  has  already  been  told. 

Spanish  Refugees 
in  Portugal. 

The  Portuguese  king  was  a  dissembler  who  assumed  a 
friendly  external  to  further  unfriendly  ends.     At  first  he 


354  TIISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

Opened  his  land  as  an  asylum  for  Spain's  exiles,  at  least 
for  eight  months'  respite.  Rabhi  Aboab  arranged  the 
terms  of  admission.  When  the  months  of  grace  wer? 
up,  he  broke  many  of  the  promises  made  to  aid  their 
departure.  On  the  ships,  tardily  supplied,  the  men  were 
robbed  and  the  women  outraged.  The  cruel  sailors 
landed  some  on  desolate  coasts  and  left  them  to  their 
fate.  Some  were  seized  by  pirates.  Many  prevented 
from  leaving  Portugal  by  treacherous  devices,  were  en- 
slaved because  they  stayed.  Their  children  were 
torn  from  their  parents  regardless  of  their  heart  rending 
cries,  and  taken  to  the  island  of  St.  Thomas,  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa.  Those  who  did  not  die  on  the 
way  were  reared  in  the  faith  of  their  parents'  foes. 

John  IPs  successor,  Manuel,  styled  the  Great,  began 
his  reign  in  1495  with  a  humane  treatment  of  the  Jews, 
freeing  without  payment  those  who  had  been  enslaved. 
Abraham  Zacuto,  the  Jewish  astronomer,  was  taken 
into  his  service.  Humane  he  might  have  continued,  but 
desiring  to  marry  Isabella  of  Spain,  who  inherited,  with 
her  name,  all  her  mother's  fanaticism,  untempered  by 
her  mother's  softness,  he  had  to  submit  to  her  bigoted 
conditions — Jewish  expulsion.  Manuel  the  Great — but 
not  great  enough  to  resist  that  barbaric  demand ! 

Portuguese 
Expulsion. 

So,  against  the  advice  of  many  of  his  counselors,  he 
reluctantly  consented,  though  he  indulgently  put  off  the 
expulsion  for  a  year,  1497.  But  once  under  his  wife's 
fanatic  dominance  he  went  even  further  than  his  Span- 
ish exemplars.  All  children  between  certain  ages  (the 
authorities  differ  as  to  the  period)  urrc  to  be  left  behind 
by  their  exiled  parents,  to  be  brought  up  in  the  Church. 
The  tragic  episodes  of  the  Crusades  were  here  repeated. 


LAST   YEARS    IN    PORTUGAL  355 

of  which  we  have  the  unbiased  testimony  of  a  Chris- 
tian bishop.  Once  more  we  see  Jewish  parents  slaying 
their  offspring  and  then  slaying  themselves.  Some 
Christians,  like  the  Egyptian  midwives  of  old,  took  sides 
against  their  sovereigns,  for  they,  too,  were  mothers  and 
fathers.  But  the  perfidious  king  w^ent  further  yet.  Some 
twenty  thousand  souls  who,  trusting  to  royal  clemency, 
had  lingered  till  the  last  day  of  grace,  were  informed 
that  the  time  for  departure  had  expired  and  the  alterna- 
tive of  Christianity  with  honors  or  Judaism  with  slavery 
was  proffered.  As  they  remained  invincibly  loyal,  con- 
version was  literally  forced  upon  them. 

So  Portugal  now  had  its  Maranos,  or  Neo-Christians, 
whose  conformity  to'  the  Church  was  leniently  over- 
looked. Still,  many  desiring  to  escape  from  this  double 
life,  emigrated  to  Barbary,  Italy  and  Turkey — until  fur- 
ther emigration  was  prevented. 

In  1506  the  Dominican  friars  incited  a  mob  to  heart- 
lessly massacre  these  Neo-Christians.  Drought  and 
plague  as  well  as  heresy  were  ascribed  to  them.  But 
this  wanton  cruelty  created  a  reaction  in  the  king's  heart, 
whose  fanaticism  ceased  with  his  wife's  death.  The 
persecutors  were  punished  and  full  permission  of  emi- 
gration was  granted. 

Under  Joao  III,  who  came  to  the  throne  in  1521,  Mar- 
ano  emigration  was  again  restricted  and  conformity  to 
Christian  life  strictly  enforced.  The  climax  of  woe 
came  in  1531  with  the  institution  of  the  awful  Inquisition. 

For  half  a  century  the  Jews  had  fought  its  introduc- 
tion. But  all  opposition  was  finally  quelled  and  the 
"Holy  Office"  completely  installed.  But  the  postpone- 
ment and  final  enforcement  were  largely  affected  by  a 
series  of  romantic  circumstances  entirely  unforeseen,  re- 
calling the  story  of  David  Alroy. 


356  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

David  Reubeni 

and  Solomon  Molcho. 

A  Jewish  adventurer  calling  himself  David  Reubeni, 
and  hailing  from  Arabia,  startled  the  Moslem  and  the 
Christian  world  with  the  story  of  a  Jewish  kingdom  in 
the  East.  He  was  favorably  received  by  Pope  Clement 
VII  in  Rome,  and  by  Joao  III  in  Portugal,  who  half 
believed  in  his  mission  to  lead  a  Jewish  crusade  against 
the  Turks  in  the  Holy  Land.  The  Portuguese  king  at 
the  same  time  saw  here  a  political  opportunity  to  win 
back  the  spice  trade  which  had  been  taken  by  the  Turk. 
So  for  a  time  there  was  a  friendly  attitude  towards  the 
secret  Jews  who  in  their  turn  looked  upon  Reubeni  al- 
most as  a  Messiah. 

The  incident  took  a  new  turn  when  the  high-born 
Diego  Pirez  of  Marano  ancestry,  became  a  convert  to 
Judaism  through  Reubeni  and  took  the  name  of  Solomon 
Molcho.  He  was  a  scholar,  courtier  and  a  Messianic 
visionary.  Bar  Cochba  had  not  in  Rabbi  Akiba  a  more 
devoted  ally  than  Reubeni  found  in  Molcho.  (T.  Y.,  p. 
211.)  In  both  instances,  too,  the  disciple  was  of  purer 
and  loftier  character  than  the  man  he  humbly  followed. 

Sailing  to  Turkey,  Molcho  made  a  sensation  there  and 
inspired  audiences  by  his  preaching  the  speedy  coming 
of  the  Messiah.  Next  he  turned  to  Rome  and  donning  a 
beggar's  rags  he  indulged  in  visions  of  the  Messiah  he 
half  believed  himself  to  be.  Fearlessly  he  appeared  in 
the  presence  of  the  impressionable  Clement  VII,  who 
gave  him  welcome  while  the  Pope's  subordinates  were 
seeking  to  put  him  to  death.  Heedless  of  danger,  for  he 
courted  martyrdom,  we  next  find  him  preaching  publicly 
in  the  synagogue  and  indulging  in  prophetic  ecstasies. 
Condemned  to  death  as  a  traducer  of  the  Church,  he  was 
gnatcheci  from  the  burning  by  his  friend,  the  Pope. 


LAST   YEARS   IN    PORTUGAL 


357 


His  last  dramatic  act  was  an  appeal  made  jointly  with 
Reubeni  to  the  Emperor  Charles  V  (of  Spain)  to  lead  a 
Jewish  army  against  the  Turks.  The  less  impressionable 
Emperor  handed  them  both  over  to  the  Inquisition. 
Reubeni  probably  died  in  one  of  its  dungeons.  Molcho 
before  the  fires  were  kindled  to  consume  him  at  Mantua 
was  promised  his  freedom  if  he  returned  to  the  Church. 
He  replied  that  he  preferred  death  as  a  Jew  to  life  as  a 
Christian  and  rejoiced  to  die  for  the  cause  of  the  Faith 
he  loved. 

So  passed  a  noble  soul  whose  fantastic  imagination, 
while  it  won  him  a  famous  career,  prevented  his  becom- 
ing of  any  real  service  to  the  Synagogue. 


AUTOGRAPH    OF    SOLOMON  MOLCHO 

Portuguese 
Inquisition,  1531. 

Indeed,  the  momentary  friendhness  towards  the  Mar- 
anos  occasioned  by  Reubeni's  appearance  and  promise 
was  followed  by  severe  reaction  after  his  bubble  had 
burst.  The  Inquisition  long  planned,  but  postponed,  was 
now  inaugurated  in  1531.  It  needed  but  a  slanderous 
charge  of  image  desecration  to  bring  the  climax.  The 
steady  emigration  of  Maranos  was  now  stopped  by  the 
Inquisitors  eager  for  victims.  In  Spain,  the  Inquisition 
preceded  the  Expulsion ;  in  Portugal,  it  followed  it. 


35^  mSTORV     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEW'S 

We  need  hardly  reeite  the  details  of  the  sad  ehrouicle. 
Its  abortive  methods  and  its  strange  mingling  of  bigotry 
and  avarice  have  been  told  in  the  story  of  the  Inquisition 
in  Spain — its  precedent  and  counterpart.  Its  tortures 
were  just  as  fiendish.  It  was  but  a  change  of  back- 
ground. Gratefully  we  record  that  the  Franciscan  Da 
Silva  opposed  its  introduction  and  declined  the  position 
of  Inquisitor.  Alas,  there  were  many  eager  to  take  it. 
The  JMaranos  still  kejjt  up  their  fight  against  it,  with  its 
forced  conversions  and  its  confiscations,  for  a  year  or 
two.  But  in  1 541  we  find  the  auto-da-fe,  with  accom- 
panying human  burnings  in  Lisbon,  Evora  and  Cambria. 
Soon  it  spread  like  a  pestilence  over  all  Portugal.  One 
Inquisitor  did  not  hesitate  to  resort  to  forgery  to  force 
confessions  and  even  hired  criminals  to  testify. 

Owing  to  tremendous  opposition  that  its  scandals  cre- 
ated, some  Maranos  were  permitted  to  return  to  Judaism 
unmolested  and  were  released  from  the  overcrowded 
prisons.  But  as  soon  as  the  outcry  had  died  down,  the 
old  tyranny  was  resumed.  Thus  it  continued  with  ebb 
and  How.  Said  an  English  consul  who  witnessed  some 
burnings  in  the  presence  of  the  Queen,  "their  crime  is 
their  possession  of  wealth." 

Finally  in  1557,  the  remaining  Maranos,  on  the  pay- 
ment of  an  enormous  indemnity,  were  allowed  to  depart. 
Retribution  came  earlier  to  Portugal  than  to  Spain.  For 
in  1578  this  very  indemnity  was  utilized  to  undertake  a 
war  in  Africa  against  the  Moslem.  From  the  disastrous 
defeat  that  followed,  Portugal  never  quite  recovered. 

Still  the  Inquisition  went  on  all  through  the  seven- 
teenth century  ;  it  continued  while  Portugal  became  sub- 
ject to  Spain  and  also  after  its  subsequent  independence. 
Its  havoc  even  extended  to  the  Portuguese  colonies  in 
the   New   World.      So   in  distant   Brazil   its   long  arm 


LAST  YEARS  IN  PORTUGAL  359 

reached  out  to  Israelites  once  more  and  brought  some 
back  as  victims  to  Lisbon. 

More  even  than  in  Spain,  the  Portuguese  Inquisition 
is  a  storv  of  intrigue  and  counter-intrigue  ;  a  bull  would 
be  bought  from  one  Pope  to  sanction  it,  then  from  an- 
other to  restrict  it. 

It  will  carry  us  beyond  the  epoch  covered  by  this  vol- 
ume to  trace  its  bloody  trail  through  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, till  its  power  was  broken  through  the  exposure  of 
its  infamies  by  King  Joseph.  The  moment  its  victims 
were  given  a  civilized  trial,  where  the  accused  could  be 
informed  of  the  charges  against  him  and  of  the  names 
of  his  accusers  and  could  also  choose  his  own  counsel — 
the  Inquisition  rapidly  collapsed.  It  could  flourish  only 
in  the  dark ;  like  noisome  insects,  it  shunned  the  light.  It 
hardly  needed  the  earthquake  of  1750  to  destroy  its 
tribunal  building.  Still  not  till  after  the  nineteenth  cen- 
turv  had  dawned,  not  till  1821,  was  it  officially  abolished 
and  the  nation  awoke'  from  its  nightmare. 

Later  Fortunes  of 
the  Sephardim. 

The  expulsion  from  the  Peninsula  of  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal closes  an  epoch  in  Jewish  history.  The  disaster 
affected  materially  and  sympathetically  the  whole  Jew- 
ish world.  Once  more  Zion  w^as  laid  low — another  cen- 
tre of  Jewish  life  and  learning  erased  from  the  map. 
The  bulk  of  Spanish  Israel  was  now  lost  to  Jewry  by 
baptism  or  death ;  lost,  too,  the  bulk  of  their  wealth, 
estimated  at  thirty  million  ducats. 

But  exiled  and  impoverished  the  Sephardim  (Spanish 
and  Portuguese  Jews),  lost  naught  of  their  dignity  of 
bearing  or  their  cultured  manners,  which  centuries  of 
distinction  had  given  them.  Their  fallen  state  even  ex- 
aggerated their  pride.     The  Peninsula  had  exploited  and 


360  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

expelled  them,  but  it  had  not  broken  their  spirit.  In 
their  fine  bearing  through  it  all  they  stood  in  strong 
contrast  with  their  cowed  and  somewhat  shiftless  Ash- 
kcnamm  (German,  chiefly)  brethren.  So  they  held 
themselves  aloof,  keeping  up  their  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese languages  which  they  spoke  with  purity,  as  half 
sacred  tongues.  They  maintained,  too,  their  distinct 
synagogue  ritual,  that  almost  singled  them  out  as  a 
separate  Jewish  sect.  As  such  they  came  to  regard 
themselves  and  scorned  union  with  the  Tcdcsco  (Span- 
ish for  German,  slightingly  used). 

In  spite  of  the  barbaric  treatment  that  marked  the 
later  years  of  the  Jews  in  Spain,  they  never  got  over 
their  attachment  to  it.  Like  no  other  country,  outside  of 
the  Holy  Land,  it  had  the  spell  of  Fatherland  to  them. 

We  have  recounted  the  woes  and  the  losses,  yet  some 
flotsam  and  jetsam  was  saved  from  the  wreckage.  Their 
wondrous  recuperative  powers  were  again  exemplified. 
As  in  the  earlier  dispersion,  here  likewise  there  resulted 
some  compensating  good  to  Israel  at  large. 

Wherever  they  came  they  were  singled  out  for  leader- 
ship. In  Turkey  they  became  the  citizen  class  as  mer- 
chants and  artisans  as  well  as  physicians,  linguists  and 
teachers.  Their  advent  in  Constantinople  increased  the 
Jewish  community  there  to  30,000.  They  formed  the 
majority  of  the  Jewish  community  of  Salonica,  making 
its  language  Spanish.  They  furnished  its  philosophers 
and  astronomers  and  were  largely  instrumental  in  mak- 
ing i'  a  Kabalistic  centre. 

Thev^  not  only  re-enforced  the  Jewish  community  of 
Jerusalem,  but  raised  its  whole  status.  This  was  true 
also  of  Safet  in  Galilee,  where  Joseph  Saragossa  became 
teacher  and  Dayan  of  his  brethren.     They  established 


DISCOVERY    OF   AMERICA  361 

new  congregations   in   Damascus.      Here,   as   elsewhere, 
fitness  placed  leadership  ia  their  hands. 

One  Spanish  Jew  leads  a  Moorish  brigade  in  Fez,  and 
another  founds  a  college  there.  Many,  like  their  illus- 
trious predecessor  Maimcnides  (an  earlier  fugitive  from 
Spain)  became  rabbis  and  teachers  in  Egypt.  One  Span- 
ish rabbi  abolished  the  obsolete  Selucidaean  era  (T.  V., 
p.  28),  still  maintained  by  Egyptian  Jews  from  pre- 
Maccabasan  days,  and  introduced  the  traditional  era  o£ 
the  world's  creation — our  custom  now. 

So  the  Jewish  centre  of  gravity  in  learning  and  lead- 
ership was  shifting  East  again — but  only  for  a  while. 

Notes  and  References. 
Scphardic  Ritual: 

The  Sephardim  still  maintain  distinct  and  separate 
synagogues  in  the  nations  of  the  world  to-day.  Their 
liturgy  varies  slightly  as  well  as  their  pronunciation  of 
Hebrew. 

Read  Chapter  on  Safet  in  Schechter's  Studies  in  Ju- 
daism, Second  Series. 
Theme  for  Discussion: 

Compare  the  modern  Jewish  method  of  time  measure- 
ment of  the  Jews  with  that  of  the  Christians  and  the  Moj 
hammedans. 


■'>- 


''>    ''  '^>    ^^  if*    ff    -      -^         '"^ 


CARICATURE  OF  ISAAC  OF  NORWICH. 


362  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 


CHAPTER      XL. 

THE  DISCOVERY   OF   AMERICA. 

Island  and  j^eninsula  nations  arc  always  maritime  na- 
tions. Spain  and  Portugal  formed  no  exception  to  this 
rule.  We  have  already  seen  that  these  two  lands  under 
Moorish  and  also  under  earlier  Christian  rule  were  the 
culture  centres  of  Europe.  Not  even  later  could  In- 
cjuisitors  and  friars,  while  discouraging  intellectual  ac- 
tivity, quite  petrify  it.  So  for  this  double  reason  mari- 
time enterprise  and  scientific  invention  (both  now  given 
such  impetus  by  the  spread  of  international  commerce) 
still  found  their  focus  in  Spain  and  Portugal. 

Jewish  Scientists 
in  the  Peninsula. 

In  this  survey  we  must  turn  back  to  the  period  before 
the  Expulsion. 

Because  of  the  high  reputation  of  the  Jews  in  the 
realm  of  science,  especially  in  astronomy  and  mathemat- 
ics, and  because  of  the  important  posts  of  State  held  by 
them,  we  are  almost  prepared  to  learn  that  Jews  con- 
tributed a  large  share  towards  naval  projects,  not  only 
in  financing  them  but  also  as  nautical  inventors,  as  ex- 
pert counsellors  and  even  as  actual  explorers. 

Isaac  Ibn  Said,  of  Toledo  (Don  Zag)  had  already  in 
the  thirteenth  century  published  astronomical  tables. 
These  Alphonsine  Tables  (p.  208)  were  used  by  the 
scientists  of  Germany,  France,  Italy,  and  even  England. 
Abraham  Zacuto  invented  a  perpetual  astronomical  cal- 
endar of  the  seven  planets.  Joseph  Vechino,  a  mathe- 
matician, who  translated  this  work  from  the  Hebrew  into 


THE  DISCOVERY  OE  AMERICA  363 

Latin  and  Spanish,  and  also  an  inventor  of  nautical  in- 
struments, was  one  of  those  summoned  by  Joao  II 
(John)  of  Portugal,  to  a  nautical  congress. 

Other  Jewish  geographers  were  sent  by  this  king  to 
make  explorations 'in  Asia. 

When  Henry  the  Navigator,  son  of  Joao  I  of  Portu- 
gal, established  a  naval  academy,  he  appointed  as  its 
director  Maestre  Jaime  (whom  Kayserling  identities  as 
Jehuda  Cresques,  "the  map  Jew"),  a  mathematician,  car- 
tographer and  maker  of  nautical  instruments. 

Portuguese  Jews  contributed  much  to  the  invention 
and  improvement  of  the  astrolabe  by  which  mariners 
could  direct  their  course  across  the  trackless  ocean,  and 
devised  instruments  to  determine  the  meridian  altitude 
of  the  sun. 

Columbus 
Aided  by  Jews. 

Be  it  remembered  that  in  the  fifteenth  century  the 
Portuguese  were  the  foremost  navigators  of  the  world. 
That  is  why  Christ  ofero  Colo  mho,  born  in  Genoa,  1446, 
left  his  country  for  Lisbon,  the  central  port  of  maritime 
enterprise.  Here  among  others,  he  met  Joseph  Vechino, 
who  gave  him  a  copy  of  his  translation  of  Zacuto's  astro- 
nomical tables.  These  became  of  great  use  to  him  in 
the  voyages  he  was  about  to  undertake.  For,  while 
prosecuting  his  studies  he  became  fired  with  enthusiasm 
at  the  projects  of  the  Portuguese  navigators  to  find  a 
safe  ocean  route  to  its  new  possessions  in  India.  This- 
land  of  gold  was  said  to  be  the  land  (Cathay)  of  Prester- 
John,  a  presumed  "priest-king"  of  a  vague  realm  in 
Asia.  He  took  voyages  to  the  Azores,  the  Canaries,  and 
the  coast  of  Guinea,  then  the  limits  of  European  naviga- 
tion. 

Convinced  of  the   feasibility  of  the  plan  to  reach  a 


3^4 


HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 


northwest  passage,  he  outHned  a  project  to  lead  a 
squadron  across  the  sea  (probably  along  the  African 
coast)  and  presented  it  to  the  king  about  1482.     But  the 


AN  ASTROLABE. 


plan  was  dismissed  by  Joao  II  as  too  expensive  in  equip- 
ment and  his  council  (Junta)  on  nautical  affairs  decided 
against  it.  But  the  king  sent  some  of  his  own  explorers 
to  the  East,  utilizing  the  plan  of  Columbus ;  Jews  partici- 


THE  DISCOVERY  OF  AMERICA  365 

pated  in  many  ways.  But  they  did  not  venture  far  from 
the  accustomed  routes.  So,  poor  and  dispirited,  Colom- 
bo (or  as  he  is  better  known  in  the  Latinized  form  of  his 
name  "Columbus")  left  Portugal.  After  appealing  in 
vain  to  the  kings  of  Italy  and  France  to  take  up  and 
finance  his  project,  he  came  to  Spain  and  laid  his  ambi- 
tious plan  before  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 

It  was  about  the  year  i486,  just  when  the  Inquisition 
was  committing  its  dreadful  ravages  among  the  Mara- 
nos,  that  he  was  given  this  royal  audience.  Detecting 
their  respective  weaknesses,  Columbus  shrewdly  appealed 
to  the  avarice  of  Ferdinand — "it  was  a  land  of  gold" — 
and  to  the  religious  zeal  of  Isabella,  "it  was  a  new  iield 
for  the  spread  of  Christianity." 

Referred  again  to  a  commission  of  nautical  scholars, 
they,  like  the  Portuguese,  also  discredited  his  project. 
But  a  friend  of  Columbus,  Diega  de  Deza,  of  Jewish 
descent,  submitted  the  plan  independently  to  a  group  of 
geographers  and  mathematicians,  among  them  Abraham 
Zacuto.  Their  favorable  endorsement  induced  the  king 
to  reconsider  the  matter.  So  while  Columbus  was  not 
yet  given  the  ships  and  equipment  he  desired,  he  was 
taken  into  the  royal  service. 

He  now  met  Abraham  Senior,  Isaac  Abarbanel  and 
Gabriel  Sanchez,  all  of  whom  as  State  financiers  ren- 
dered him  valuable  aid.  He  needed  such  friends  at 
court,  since  the  king  was  all  too  ready  to  forget  him 
and  his  project  in  furthering  other  ambitions.  The  royal 
coldness  may  have  been  somewhat  due  to  the  overreach- 
ing demands  of  Columbus  in  asking  not  only  that  he  be 
made  admiral  of  the  fleet,  but  also  viceroy  and  governor 
of  the  territory  he  hoped  to  discover. 

When  about  to  turn  in  despair  to  the  French  king,  it 
was  again  a  Jew  (a  Marano)  who  took  his  cause  to 


366  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

heart  and  pleaded  in  his  favor.  This  was  Luis  de  Sant- 
angel,  whose  family  had  suffered  so  cruelly  at  the  hands 
of  the  Inquisition,  but  whose  valuable  services  were  none 
the  less  in  great  demand  by  the  State.  His  telling  ap[)eal 
won  over  the  Queen ;  but  she  did  not  profifer  to  j^awn 
her  jewels,  as  the  story  goes.  It  was  in  fact  Santangel 
himself  who  offered  the  five  million  marevedis  necessary. 

O  the  irony  of  history!  On  the  very  date  of  the  an- 
nouncement of  the  decree  of  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from 
Spain,  a  decree  to  equip  this  fleet  of  Columbus  issued 
from  the  same  royal  hand.  Aye,  on  the  very  day  fol- 
lowing Israel's  departure,  i.  c,  on  August  3d,  1492,  Co- 
lumbus, all  his  original  demands  granted,  set  forth  with 
three  ships  to  find  a  new  route  to  gold-producing  India. 

Of  the  hundred  men  that  composed  his  crew,  some 
have  been  identified  as  Jews.  For  it  was  so  hard  to  find 
volunteers  to  venture  on  the  perilous  voyage  to  an  un- 
known destination,  that  even  some  criminals  were  pressed 

into  service.     But  Jewish  exiles  whose  outlook  now  was 

.       .  .      "^ 

as  perilous  and  destination  as  uncertain,  would  be  likely 

to  accept  the  alternative  and  be  accepted  in  turn. 

De  Torres  First 
to  Set  Foot  in 
New  World. 

Of  such  Jews  or  Maranos,  Luis  de  Torres,  the  ship 
doctors  and  some  others  are  specifically  mentioned.  It 
is  even  conjectured  that  the  sailor  who  espied  a  light  on 
October  12th,  after  two  months  of  peril  on  the  watery 
waste,  was  a  Marano.  However  that  may  be,  certainly  it 
was  Luis  de  Torres,  who  with  another  companion  was 
sent  ashore  as  investigator  to  the  island  now  known  as 
Cuba.  He  was  received  with  friendliness  by  the  sup- 
posed Indian  natives  and  arranged  a  treaty  of  peace. 
Indeed,  de  Torres  ultimately  settled  here,  being  the  first 


THE  DISCOVERY  OF  AMERICA  367 

European  to  adopt  the  local  custom  of  smoking  tobacco. 

Columbus,  having  discovered  as  he  thought  the  north- 
west passage  to  the  Indies,  gratefully  sent  the  first  news 
to  his  friend  and  patron,  Santangel.  He  sent  word  also 
to  Gabriel  Sanchez,  who  gave  it  wide  circulation  through 
the  press. 

On  the  theory  of  the  spiritual  control  of  the  earth, 
Pope  Alexander  V  issued  a  bull  conceding  the  territory 
discovered,  to  Spain  for  all  future  time,  provided  Catholi- 
cism be  maintained  there.  The  money,  property,  and 
valuables  taken  from  the  banished  Jews  or  left  in  trust 
behind  them  in  the  hands  of  Maranos,  amounting  in  all 
to  about  six  million  marevedis,  was  seized  by  the  king 
and  used  to  equip  the  second  more  pretentious  armada 
of  Columbus.  On  this  voyage  he  discovered  the  Caribbee 
Islands ;  on  a  third  he  landed  in  South  America. 

Yet  because  the  new  lands  did  not  bring  immediate  re- 
turn in  the  precious  metals  (then  conceived  as  the  only 
wealth  of  nations)  the  short-sighted  monarch  listened  to 
his  detractors  and  stripped  him  of  his  honors.  But  these 
interesting  facts  as  well  as  his  death  in  poverty  and  neg- 
lect, do  not  belong  to  this  history. 

Exploration  and 
Settlement  in  America. 

The  fever  of  maritime  discovery  now  seized  all  coast 
nations.  The  same  Abraham  Zacuto,  whose  Almanac 
and  Astronomical  Tables  had  been  of  such  aid  to  Colum- 
bus, now  an  exile  in  Portugal,  was  consulted  by  its  king, 
Dom  Manuel,  as  to  a  proposed  expedition  of  Vasoo  da 
Gama  to  seek  a  sea  route  to  India  round  thf^  -'  f  r'CJin 
coast.  Zacuto  had  already  devised,  at  the  royal  lequt. 
a  storm  chart  for  safer  guidance  of  ships  round  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.     This  famous  explorer,  da  Gama, 


368  illSTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

was  further  aided  by  a  Jew  named  after  him  (Caspar 
da  Gama),  a  Portuguese  exile  whom  he  picked  up  at 
Goa.  An  experienced  traveller  and  mariner,  he  aided  in 
the  discovery  of  Brazil  and  gave  such  valuable  informa- 
tion to  Amerigo  Vespucci,  that  King  Manuel  conferred 
rank  upon  him. 

Although  Columbus  would  fain  have  kept  the  newly- 
discovered  lands  for  the  exclusive  settlement  of  Catho- 
lics,— Jews,  secret  or  confessed,  became  the  first  who 
succeeded  in  opening  up  their  trade  resources.  They 
exported  precious  stones  from  Brazil  and  imported  grain. 
They  transplanted,  it  is  said,  sugar  from  Madeira  to 
Brazil  and  undoubtedly  maintained  the  largest  sugar 
plantations  there. 

But  the  vital  importance  of  America's  discovery  for 
the  Jews,  lay  in  the  fact  that  it  was  a  new  haven  of 
refuge  for  this  harassed  people.  Hither  fled  Portuguese 
Jews  and  Spanish  Maranos  from  inc^uisitorial  flames. 
At  first  Brazil  was  utilized  by  the  Portuguese  as  a  penal 
colony,  and.  Jews  were  transported  there  as  a  place  of 
exile.  But  so  persistent  was  the  animosity  against  them, 
just  as  soon  as  it  was  noticed  that  they  sought  it  as  a 
place  of  refuge,  their  emigration  from  Portugal  was  hin- 
dered by  heavy  fines  and  later  by  complete  confiscations. 
Not  till  the  Jews  had  paid  Portugal  the  immense  indem- 
nity of  1,700,000  crusados  in  1577  was  their  emigration 
and  settlement  allowed. 

Alas,  when  they  reached  Brazil,  their  first  place  of 
considerable  settlement,  and  supposed  they  could  openly 
live  the  Jewish  life  and  introduce  Jewish  worship  without 
disguise,  they  found  a  branch  of  the  dreaded  Inquisition 
installed. 

Spain  prohibited  Jews  from  settling  in  its  colonies  and 


THE  DISCOVERY  OF  AMERICA  369 

it  set  up  tribunals  in  Lima  and  Peru  for  thoSfe  who  did. 
No  wonder  that  when  Holland  had  wrenched  itself  from 
despotic  Spain  and  became  an  independent  land,  granting 
freedom  of  conscience  to  all,  that  the  Jews  in  South 
America  should  have  sided  with  the  protecting  Dutch 
against  the  persecuting  Portuguese  in  their  fight  for  the 
possession  of  Brazil. 

We  get  visions  of  Jewish  settlement  in  Mexico  only 
from  their  funeral  pyres.  In  the  Island  of  St.  Thomas 
we  meet  them  only  as  baptized  children  severed  from 
their  parents.  They  were  to  be  found  in  Peru  mostly  in 
Marano  disguise. 

Their  settlement  in  other  parts  of  South  America  and 
in  North  America  takes  us  into  the  seventeenth  century 
and  is  treated  in  the  closing  volume  of  this  series. 

To  the  Western  Hemisphere  came  the  Jews  then,  not 
as  exploiters  but  as  settlers;  not  merely  to  snatch  gold 
from  its  soil,  but  to  enrich  it  with  their  enterprise.  With 
the  establishment  of  the  independence  of  the  United 
States,  the  tide  of  Jewish  emigration  has  moved  steadily 
westward,  readjusting  its  centre  of  gravity  and  adding 
a  new  and  brighter  chapter  to  the  dark  records  of  Israel's 
history. 

"When  the  tale  of  bricks  is  increased  then  comes 
Moses,"  is  a  rabbinical  dictum.  Whenever  Israel's  suf- 
ferings become  insupportable,  Providence  sends  a  de- 
liverer. As  Poland  was  opened  and  Turkey,  when  the 
rest  of  Europe  was  either  imprisoning  or  expelling  them 
and  planning  the  eradication  of  their  Faith, — so  the  dis- 
covery of  America  was  destined  to  give  them  a  new 
lease  of  life.  It  was  their  survival  of  the  "fifteen  century 
tragedy"  that  suggested  the  famous  dictum,  "Israel  is  the 
marvel  of  history." 


3/0  HISTORY     OF     THE     MEDIAEVAL     JEWS 

The  Jew  has  survived  i)ersecution  ;  whether  he  will  he 
able  to  survive  emancipation  is  a  question  that  the  his- 
torian of  the  future  alone  can  answer. 

Notes  and  References. 

Cohtmbiis: 

Abraham  Zacuto  found  refuge  later  in  Tunis  and  died 
in  Turkey.  See  Christopher  Columbus;  Kayserling;  In- 
dex. This  entire  book,  translated  by  Dr.  Charles  Gross, 
will  be  found  delightful  reading. 

Coinage  Table: 

I   Maravedi  —  3  mills   (American   Coinage) 

383  Maravedi  —  i   ducat. 

490  Maravedi  —  i   doubloon. 
2210  Maravedi  —  i   mark   of   silver. 
A  crusado  —  70  cents  (U.  S.) 

Inquisition  in  South  America: 

For  names  and  details  of  victims  of  the  Inquisition  in 
South  America  and  Mexico  see  Publications  of  Amer- 
ican Jezcish  Historical  Society,  especially  Nos.  iv  and  vii. 

Re-read  the  Introduction. 

Theme  for  Discussion: 

The  participance  of  Jews  in  the  discovery  of  the 
Western   Continent. 


371 


Index 


Abarbanel,  scholar  and  finan- 
cier, seeks  to  prevent  ex- 
pulsion of  Jews  from  Spain, 
346. 

Abder-Rahman.  I,  II,  59;  III, 
fosters  arts  of  civilization 
in  Spain,  60. 

Abraham  Ibn  Daud  of  To- 
ledo, scientist  and  histo- 
rian, 111-12;  philosophy- 
leads  to  knowledge  of  God, 
the  First  Cause,  111-12;  on 
ethical  and  ceremonial  pre- 
cepts, 112;  dies  martyr,  112. 

Abu  Husain  Joseph  Ibn  Nag- 
dela,  Vizier  of  Granada 
and  Nagid  in  succession  to 
Samuel,    his    father,    71. 

Agobard,  bishop,  opponent 
of  Jews,  52. 

Alami,  rebukes  Jewish  fail- 
ings, 270. 

Albalia,  head  of  Jewish  Com- 
munity of  Seville,  astrono- 
mer and  astrologer,  71. 

Albigenses,  French  ration- 
alists, 141 ;  massacre  of, 
150. 

Albo,     Joseph,     philosopher 
participated  in  Disputation, 
307;  "Ikkarim"  (fundamen- 
tal beliefs),  308;   views   on 
fear,    love,    prophecy,    309 
freewill,  omniscience,  prov 
idence,   310;    blessing,    for 
giveness.  311;   prayer,  312, 
faith,    309,    312;    divine    at- 
tributes, 313. 

Alenu  prayer,  Jews  impris- 
oned because  of  its  misin- 
terpretation, 282;  note,  282. 

Alfassi,  Isaac,  rabbi  of  Lu- 
cena,  compiles  digest  of 
Jewish  Law,  71. 


Alhakim  II,  Caliph,  asks  for 
translation  of  Bible  and 
Mishna  into  Arabic;  note, 
66. 

Almohades,  Moslem  Unita- 
rians, persecute  jews,  180- 
81. 

Almoravides.  ruling  power  in 
Aloslem  Spain,  li. 

Alroy,  David,  Messiah  claim- 
ant, 258-60. 

America,  discovery  of,  ch.  xl, 
362;  Columbus  uses  Zacu- 
to's  astronomical  tables, 
363;  financially  aided  by 
Senior,  Abarbanel  and 
Sanchez,  365;  Luis  de  Sant- 
angel  pleads  for  his  pro- 
ject of  discovery,  and  fi- 
nances it,  366;  Jews  in  his 
crew,  366;  Luis  de  Torres 
first  to  set  foot  in  New 
World,  366;  haven  for  the 
persecuted,  368,  370. 

Amolo,  bishop,  wrote  and 
preached   against  Jews,  53. 

Anan,  founder  of  Karaism, 
31 ;  his  mistakes,  Zi. 

Anatoli,  translator,  284. 

Arabic,  language  of  culture 
for  Eastern  Jews,  26;  schol- 
arship in  Spain,  59;  Mishna 
translated  into,  65. 

Aragon,  status  of  Jews  in, 
210;  union  with  Castile, 
furthered  by  Jews,  332. 

Aristotle   v.   Plato,   note    117. 

Armleder   persecutions,  275. 
Asceticism   and   Judaism,  85. 

Astrolabe,  nautical  instru- 
ment, 363. 

Asher  b.  Jechiel  (Asheri)  mi- 
grates   to    Spain,    but    im- 


Z72 


INDEX 


bued  with  the  narrower 
German  spirit,  249;  en- 
dorsed Rashba's  ban  on 
philosophic  study,  250; 
compiles  summary  of  Jew- 
ish Law,  250;  ethical  will, 
251 ;  note  253. 

Astrologers,  Jewish,  Albalia, 
71 ;  astrology,  71. 

Astronomers,  Jewish,  Don 
Zag,  Isaac  Ibn  Said  draws 
up  astronomical  tables,  208, 
362;  Gersonides  exposes 
defects  of  Ptolemaic  theory, 
246;  Moses  Zacuto,  note 
274;  Abraham  Zacuto  in- 
vents perpetual  calendar, 
362;  translated  by  Joseph 
Vechino,  367;  inventor  of 
nautical  instruments,  362; 
the  astrolabe,  363. 

Austria,  persecutions  in,  318- 
19. 

Auto-da-fe,   see    Inquisition. 

Averroes,  Arabian  commen- 
tator on  Aristotle,  284; 
note  300. 

Avicebrol^Ibn  Gabirol,  note 
83. 

Babylonian  schools  send  four 
scholars  to  Europe  for 
funds,  61  ;  supplanted  by 
Western  schools,  62. 

Bachya,  ch.  x,  84;  Dayan  and 
moral  philosopher,  84;  "Du- 
ties of  the  Heart,"  com- 
prising his  moral  philoso- 
phy, 85-88;  knowledge  of 
the  Unseen,  87;  humility, 
faith,  88. 

Baderisi,  Yedaya,  poet  and 
philosopher,  298;  from  his 
work,  "Bechinoth  01am" 
(examination  of  the  world) 
extract  s — World  a  Sea, 
Man,  Soul,  298-300. 

Badge,  The,  149;  note  152, 


Bagdad,  Eastern  caliphate 
enlarged  by  Haroun  al 
Raschid;  housed  1,000  Jew- 
ish families,  25. 

"Barlaam  and  J  o  s  a  p  h  a  t" 
(Prince   and  Dervish),   110. 

Benjamin  of  Tudela,  explor- 
er,   108-9;    Bacher    on,    109. 

Bernhard  of  Clairvaux,  de- 
fender of  Jews  in  2nd  Cru- 
sade, 126. 

Bible,  Ibn  Ezra  on,  115;  Mai- 
monides,  193-94;  Kabalistic 
interpretation,  227-28; 
Study  of,  by  Karaites,  34. 

Black  Plague,  The,  ch.  xxx, 
275;  origin  and  spread  of, 
276;  Jews  accused  of  caus- 
ing it,  tortured  and  massa- 
cred in  German  States,  279- 
80;  in  lesser  degree  in 
Switzerland,  Belgium, 
France,  278;  in  Spain  and 
Poland,  hardly  at  all,  278; 
280;  Synod  in  1381  to  regu- 
late Jewish  afifairs  after 
the  tragedy,  281. 

Bodo,  bishop,  proselyte  to 
Judaism,  51. 

"Book  of  Morals"  on  fear  of 
God,  cleanliness  and  self- 
love,  91. 

"Burning  of  the  Law,"  poem 
by  Meir  of  Rothenberg, 
161-62. 

Business  integrity  (fr.  Book 
of  Pious  Souls),  89. 

Byzantine  Empire,  see  East- 
ern Roman  Empire. 

Calendar,  the  Jewish,  note 
36;  Jewish   era,  361. 

Caliphate  of  Cordova,  estab, 
755;  breaks  up  into  several 
caliphates  in  year  1000,  68, 

Q^asimir,  see  PQland. 


INDEX 


373 


Castile,  Alfonso  VI  of,  con- 
quered Toledo,  tolerant  to 
Jews,  12;  Alfonso  VIII 
makes  Nasi  J.  b.  Solomon 
his  treasurer,  .108;  Alfonso 
X,  "The  Wise,"  engages 
Jewish  scholars  to  trans- 
late learned  works,  Don 
Zag  draws  up  astronomical 
tables  208;  Alfonso  formu- 
lates protective  and  re- 
strictive laws,  209;  put  into 
operation,  305;  Andalusia 
added  to  Castile,  209;  Jews 
in  State  offices,  263;  grow- 
ing antagonism  against 
Jews,  264-67;  Under  Pedro 
the  Cruel,  265-67;  Isaac  b. 
Sheshet,  268;  Chasdai  Cres- 
cas,  268-70;  Alami's  cen- 
sure, 271 ;  Jews  deprived  of 
criminal  jurisdiction,  271- 
72;  persecution  of  1391, 
272;  anti-Jewish  laws,  1412, 
305-06;  further  persecu- 
tions, 332;  united  with 
Aragon,  ZZl-ZZ. 

Chalitza,  release  of  childless 
widow,   280. 

Charlemagne,  ch.  i,  19;  ex- 
tends empire  from  Medit- 
terranean  to  North  Sea, 
20;  promotes  education,  lib- 
eral in  relation  to  Jews, 
21 ;  brings  Jewish  scholars 
from  Orient  to  the  West, 
22;  made  Roman  Emperor, 
22. 

Chasdai,  Abraham  Ibn,  of 
Aragon,  translator,  110-11; 
adapts,  "Prince  and  Der- 
vish," 110. 

Chasdai  Crescas,  expounder 
of  the  Law  and  philoso- 
pher, chief  work.  "Or  Ado- 
nai"  ("Light  of  the  Lord"), 
269-70;  God's  Omniscience, 
Providence,  Omnipotence, 
269;    prophecy,    269;    free- 


dom of  will,  creation's  pur- 
pose, 270;  compared  with 
Saadyah,  note  274. 

Chasdai  Ibn  Shaprut,  states- 
man, 63-4;  physician.  Latin 
interpreter,  63 ;  representa- 
tive of  Jews,  64,  corre- 
sponds with  Chazars,  64; 
fosters  Jewish  scholarship, 
65 

Chayuj,  Hebrew  gramma- 
rian, note  67. 

Chazan,  Cantor,  27. 

Chazanuth.  chanted  prayers, 
27. 

Chazarrs,  proselyte  kingdorn, 
ch.  V,  46;  story  of  their 
choice  of  Judaism,  47;  dis- 
appear by  1100,  48. 

Chozari,  Jehuda  Halevi's  phi- 
losophy,   98-100;    note,    105. 

Christianity,  appreciation  of, 
by  Jehuda  Halevi,  100;  by 
Maimonides,  197. 

Church  demoralization,  281; 
305;  condemned  by  Wyc- 
liffe,  314,  by  John  Huss, 
314-15. 

Coinage  Table,  Spanish;  note 
370. 

Columbus,  Christopher,  see 
America. 

Commerce  and  Jews,  49; 
Yechiel  of  Pisa,  293;  in  Po- 
land, 322;  in  Hungary,  322; 
347. 

Conversions,  forced,  Moslem, 
180-81  ;  defense  of  forced 
converts  by  Maimonides, 
181-82;  attitude  towards  re- 
pentant converts,  of  Rabe- 
nu  Gershom,  55;  of  Rashi, 
138;  see  Maranos. 

Creed,  Jewish,  Maimonides, 
Thirteen    articles,    185-86. 

Crusades,  The,  ch.  xiii,   121; 


374 


INDEX 


Pilgrimages  to  the  "Sa- 
vior's" tomb,  121  ;  First, 
122-25;  Massacre  of  Jews, 
123-26;  Jerusalem  taken, 
124-25;  Second,  125-27; 
Bernhard  of  Clairvaux  tries 
to  prevent  Jewish  slaugh- 
ter, 126;  Rabenu  Tarn's  Sy- 
nod, 127;  Third  Crusade, 
127-28;  Fifth,  Sixth  and 
Seventh,  128;  Effect  of,  129. 
Cusari,  see  Chozari. 

Dante,  289;  compared  with 
Immanuel,  note  291. 

David  Reubeni,  adventurer, 
356-57. 

Dayan,  Judge,  84. 

Dietary  laws,  Maimonides  on, 
195. 

"Disputations,"  between 
Jews  and  Christians  or- 
dered by  the  State  at  Bar- 
celona in  1263,  Nachmani's 
arguments,  216-18;  utilized 
in  the  Zohar,  229-30;  in 
France,  1240.  238;  at  Tor- 
tosa,  1412,  306. 

Divorce,  law  of,  55. 

Don  Zag,  astronomer,  208. 

Eastern  Roman  Empire  (By- 
zantine), founded  395;  his- 
tory of,  23;  327-28;  con- 
quered by  the  Turks,  328- 
29;   status  of  Jews  in,  329. 

Egypt,  Jews   in,   183. 

Elias    del    Medigo,    versatile 
scholar,    physician,     scien- 
,  tist,  sceptic,  297. 

Eliezar,  b.  Samuel  Halevi, 
moral  injunctions  of,  91. 

England,  Jews  in,  ch.  xviii 
166;  build  schools,  167 
"Blood  Accusation,"  167 
York  Castle  tragedy,  171 
King  John's  cruelties.  Mag- 


na Charta,  171-72;  apostasy 
encouraged,  172;  usury 
forced  on  them,  168,  173; 
banished  by  Edward  I,  1290, 
174;  Aaron  of  Lincoln,  note 
175. 

Era,  Jewish,  361. 

Eternity  of  Matter  (Aristo- 
telian) denied  by  Maimon- 
ides, 192;  by  Gersonides, 
248;  by  Ibn  Daud,  111. 

Evil,  Ibn  Ezra  on,  116;  Mai- 
monides,   193;   Kabala,  234. 

Exilarch,  Exilarchite,  see 
Resh  Galutha. 

"Exile,  The,"  lands  outside 
Judaea,  25;  Galuth,  145. 

Faith,  Bachya  on,  88;  Albo, 
312. 

"Faith  and  Creed,"  Saadyah's 

philosophy,  41. 
Faith     and    Kindness     (from 

Book   of   Pious    Souls),  90. 
Fear  of   God,  from  Book   of 

Morals,  91. 

Feudal  System  and  the 
Jews,  49. 

France,  origin  of,  140;  union 
of  separate  baronies,  237; 
Southern  (Provence),  cul- 
tured, liberal,  141;  North- 
ern, intolerant,  143-45;  Jews 
in  Southern  France,  141-43; 
15  1;  Kimchis  (gramma- 
rians), 142;  Tibbons  (trans- 
lators), 142-43;  Jews  in 
Northern  France  persecut- 
ed and  exploited,  143-45; 
Talmud  burnt,  238;  Jewish 
physicians  barred,  238; 
Jews  persecuted  in  Fifth 
Crusade,  239;  Moses  of 
Coucy,  revivalist,  239-40; 
Yechiel  of  Paris,  Tosafist, 
240;  First  large  expulsion, 
1306,  241  ;  Conditions  of  re- 


INDEX 


375 


turn,  242;  shepherd  and 
leper  uprisings,  242-43;  sec- 
ond expulsion  and  restora- 
tion, 243-44;  last  banish- 
ment,  1394,  245. 

Franks,  The,  19;  formation 
of  Eastern  and  Western 
Prankish  Empire,  50;  end 
of  Carlovingian  (Prank- 
ish)  Empire,  SO. 

Freedom  of  will,  Crescas, 
270;  Albo,  310. 

Future,  The,  Ibn  Ezra  on, 
116;  see  Immortality. 

Galuth,  exile  and  captivity, 
145. 

Gaon  (Excellency),  head  of 
Jewish  Academy,  38. 

Geniza,  Synagogue  store- 
room, 44. 

Gersonides,  astronomer,  246; 
philosophy  (Milchamoth 
Adonai,  "Wars  of  the 
Lord"),  247-49;  daring  atti- 
tude, 247;  Omniscience, 
Providence,  prophecy,  ce- 
lestial spheres,  immortal- 
ity, eternity  of  matter,  248; 
neglected  by  Jewish  stud- 
ents, 250;  note  253. 

God,  Ibn  Daud  on,  111-12;  Ibn 
Ezra,  115;  Maimonides,  191; 
The  Zohar,  231;  see  Provi- 
dence, Omniscience  (Ger- 
sonides), 248;  Omniscience, 
Omnipotence,  Providence 
(Crescas),  269;  Omnisci- 
ence, Providence  (Albo), 
310;  divine  attributes  (Al- 
bo), 313. 

Grammar,  Hebrew,  see  H. 
Granada,  Jews  in,  68-71. 
Greek  Church,   note  331. 

Hai,     Gaon     of     Pumbeditha 
Academy,      Talmudic      au- 


thority, broad-minded  and 

rational,  42. 
Halevi,  see  Jehuda  Halevi. 
Hebrew      Grammarians, 

Chayuj,     note     67;     Mena- 

chem    b.    Saruk,    note    67; 

Ibn   Janach,   72i;    Ibn    Ezra, 

114;     David     Kimchi,     142; 

Joseph  Kimchi,  142. 
Higher  criticism,  note  139. 
Hillel     of     Verona,     fosters 

learning   in    Italy,    through 

translations,  284. 
History,  Jews   and.   Ill;   Ibn 

Baud's  "Book  of  Tradition" 

(Sepher     Hakabala),     111; 

Josippon,  29. 
Holy  Roman  Empire,  22;  50. 
"Host,  The,"  note  331 ;  Jews 

accused    of    desecrating    it, 

324. 
Humility,     Bachya     on,     88; 

courage  of,   from  Book  of 

Morals,  91. 
Humor,  Jewish,  note  292. 
Huss,  John,  Church  reformer, 

314-15;  Hussite  war,  315-16. 
Hussites,  Jews  persecuted  on 
their  account,  318;  in  Aus- 
tria, 318;  old  restrictions 
removed,  319. 

Ibn  Daud,  see  Abraham  I. 
Daud. 

Ibn  Ezra,  Abraham  of  To- 
ledo, savant,  113-16;  con- 
trasts in  his  life,  113;  im- 
parts knowledge  through 
Hebrew,  114;  Bible  critic, 
114,  notes  116;  God,  angels, 
stars,  revelation,  Bible, 
happiness,  celibacy,  115; 
evil,  prayer,  the  future, 
116;  influence  in  Italy,  283- 
84. 

Ibn  Gabirol,  Solomon,  see  S. 


376 


INDEX 


Ibn  Janach,  versatile  schol- 
ar, li. 

Ibn  Nagdela,  Samuel,  Vizier 
of  Granada,  69  ;  uses 
formula  "Mahomet,  God's 
prophet";  Nagid  (prince  of 
Jewish  Community),  aids 
students,  compiles  a  Tal- 
mud commentary  (Mebo), 
and  other  works,  70. 

Ibn  Tibbon,  see  Tibbon. 

Iconoclast  (image-breaker), 
23. 

Immanuel  di  Roma,  Italian 
poet,  humorist  and  scholar, 
contemporary  of  Dante, 
288;  contrasted  with  Span- 
ish poets,  288-89;  "Mach- 
beroth"  (collection  of 
poems),  extracts:  "Two 
Maids,"  290;  from  "Para- 
dise and  Hell,"  290;  Dante 
and  Immanuel  compared, 
note  291. 

Immortality,  Ibn  Ezra,  116; 
Maimonides,  196;  Gerson- 
ides,  248. 

"Informer"  (Megadef),  127; 
157. 

Inquisition,  The,  ch.  xxxvii, 
332;  origin  and  spread  ot, 
2,Zl-i%\  in  Spain,  33o-43; 
methods  of  detectmg  her- 
etics and  Maranos,  2>il ;  its 
tortures,  338;  first  auto-da- 
fe,  340;  Torquemada,  In- 
quisitor General,  341-42; 
note  343;  introduced  in 
Portugal,  357-58;  abuses, 
358;  tribunals  set  up  in 
Lima  and  Peru;  decline 
and  end  of,  359. 
Isaac  b.  Sheshet,  rabbi  of 
Saragossa  and  Algiers,  is- 
sued 417  Responsa,  268. 
Isabella  of  Castile,  Zll . 

Italy,  status  of  Jews  in,  ch. 
xxxi ;  ch.  xxxii,  283-292 ;  at- 


titude of  Popes,  283;  Jew- 
ish renaissance,  284;  Kal- 
onymous,  Immanuel;  Elias 
del  Medigo,  Baderisi,  298- 
300;  Hillel  of  Verona,  284; 
Mcsser  Leon,  294;  separate 
republic  a  n  d  commercial 
advance  made  for  liberal- 
ism, 293. 

Jacob  bar  Asher  (Asherides) 
compiles  summary  of  Jew- 
ish     law      in      four      parts 
(Tur),  252. 
Jechiel  of  Paris,  Tosafist,  240. 

Jehuda  Halevi,  ch.  xi,  93; 
poems,  "A  Pair  of  Scis- 
sors," "A  Needle,"  "The 
Earth  in  Spring,"  94;  some 
prayer  poems,  95;  "Sabbath 
Hymn,"  96;  "Longing  for 
Jerusalem,"  97;  "Voyage  to 
Jerusalem,"  101-02;  "A 
Calm  Night  at  Sea,"  102; 
"Zionide,  103-04;  philoso- 
phy of  (Chozari),  98-100; 
note,  105;  appreciation  of 
church  and  mosque,  100; 
pilgrimage  to  East,  101-104; 
Halevi  and  Philo,  note  104; 
Zangwill   on,  note   105. 

Jews,  two  views  of,  "chosen," 
"outcast,"  52. 

John  of  Capistrano,  see  Mo- 
nastic Orders. 

Jose  ben  Jose,  liturgical 
poet,  29. 

Joseph  Ibn  Migash,  succes- 
sor of  Alfassi,  Ti. 

Josippon,  ,a  Hebrew  Jose- 
phus,  29. 

Judah  the  Blind,  Gaon  of 
Sora,  38. 

Juderia,  Jewish  quarter  in 
Spain  and  Portugal,  207. 

Kabala,  Tradition,  223;  orig- 
inal     meaning,      the      Oral 


INDEX 


377 


Law,  223;  later  meaning, 
mystic  interpretation  of 
Scripture,  223-24;  reaction 
against  rationalism  and 
legalism,  2  2  4;  influence 
ascetic  and  Messianic,  225- 
26;  outlined  first  in  the 
"Bahir"  (Revelation),  225; 
and  later  by  Moses  de 
Leon,  226,  in  the  Zohar,  see 
Zohar ;  philosophy  of,  note 
236;  Tradition,  note  236; 
defects  of,  235-36. 

Kairuan  (Africa)  Academy, 
note  66. 

Kalam,  term  for  philosophy 
of  Moslem  rationalists,  44. 

Kalir,  liturgical  poet,  26; 
"Palms  and  Myrtles,"  28. 

Kalonymous  b.  Kalonymos, 
poet  and  satirist,  285; 
poems,  "Burden  of  Observ- 
ance on  Male,"  286;  Meta- 
phor of  Life,  287  (from 
Touchstone) ;  Purim  par- 
ody unorthodox,  287;  let- 
ter of   response,  288. 

Karaism  and  Karaites  (Scrip- 
turalists),  ch.  iii,  30;  Im- 
provements of  K.,  34;  Mis- 
takes of  K.,  32;  gave  im- 
petus to  study  of  Bible  and 
grammar,  34;  note  35; 
movement  declines,  285. 

Kimchi,  David,  grammarian, 
commentator,  philosopher, 
142. 

Kimchi,  Joseph,  grammarian, 
etc.,  142. 

Kindness  and  faith,  90. 

Lateran  Council,  Fourth,  im- 
poses Badge  on  Jews  and 
other  restrictions,  149-50. 

Latin,  language  of  culture, 
note  145. 

Law,  Jewish,  compendium  of, 


by  Judah  the  Blind,  38;  by 
Alfassi,  71  ;  by  Maimonides 
(Yod  Hachezakah),  186-88; 
by  Asher  ben  Yechiel 
(Rosh),  250;  by  Jacob  bar 
Asher   (Tur),  252-53. 

Leo,  the  Iconoclast,  23. 

Leper  uprising  in  France,  243. 

Louis  "The  Gentle,"  succes- 
sor of  Charlemagne,  49; 
grants  privileges  to  the 
Jews,  51. 

Maimonides,  ch.  xix,  xx,  xxi ; 
179;  forced  to  emigrate 
from  Spain,  181 ;  defends 
forced  converts  ("Letter  on 
Apostasy"),  181-82;  physi- 
cian, 181;  note  205;  Works 
of,  "Maor"  (Light)  com- 
mentary on  the  Mishna, 
184;  Articles  of  Jewish 
Creed,  185-86;  Summary  of 
Jewish  Law  (Yod  Hacheza- 
kah), 186-88;  its  limita- 
tions, 188;  note  189;  "Guide 
to  the  Perplexed,"  190-198; 
God,  191  ;  spirit  and  mat- 
ter, 192;  prophecy,  192-93; 
man,  192;  evil,  193;  scrip- 
ture, 193;  beneficent  pur- 
pose of  its  precepts,  194; 
influence  of  "The  Guide," 
194;  dietary  laws,  195;  Fu- 
ture Life,  196;  Christianity, 
197;  ethical  will,  197-98; 
Aids  Jews  of  Arabia,  "Let- 
ter to  the  South,"  199;  his 
strenuous  life,  200;  his  ra- 
tionalism criticised,  201. 

Maranos,  ch.  xxxiii,  301 ; 
forced  converts  in  Chris- 
tian Spain,  four  types  of, 
301-02;  in  Portugal,  355; 
358. 

Martel,  Charles,  The  Ham- 
mer, checks  Moslem  ad- 
vance, 20, 


378 


INDEX 


Maxims,  miscellaneous  (from 
Book  of  Morals),  92. 

"Mebo,"  Ibn  Nagdela's  Tal- 
mud Manual,  70. 
Meir  of  Rothcnberg,  Tosafist, 
self  sacrifice  of,  160-61; 
poem,  "Burning  of  the 
Law,"  161-62. 
Menachem  b.  Saruk,  compiles 
dictionary  and  grammar, 
note  67. 

Messer  Leon  (J  u  d  a  h  b. 
Yechiel)  versatile  scholar, 
294. 

Messiah,  the  looked-for  scion 
of  House  of  David  to  re- 
store the  Jewish  nation, 
256-58;  see  Alroy ;  Kabalis- 
tic,  234. 

Messianic  time,  modern 
view,  note  260. 

Monastic  Orders:  Domini- 
cans, 151;  210;  Franciscans, 
152;  against  Jews,  152;  Ber- 
nadinus  of  Feltre,  anti- 
Jewish  preacher  banished 
from  Italy,  hailed  in  the 
Tyrol,  294;  Vincent  Ferrer, 
Dominican,  preaches 
against  sinners  and  Mara- 
nos,  305-06;  John  of  Capis- 
trano,  Franciscan,  hardens 
the  lot  of  Jews  in  Poland 
and  other  lands,  326-27. 

Monogamy,   56. 

Moors,  Spanish  Mohamrne- 
dans,  imbue  Jews  with 
their  love  of  poetry,  63; 
decline  of,  72. 

Moses  b.  Chenoch,  and  wife 
shipwrecked,  62;  head  of 
Cordova   Academy,  62. 

Moses  de  Leon,  compiler  of 
the  Zohar,  226-28. 

Moses  of  Coucy,  scholar  and 
preacher,  239-40. 

Moses  Kapsali,  see  Turkey. 


Moslem,  Jews  under,  liberal- 
ly treated,  25;  stimulates 
Jewish  scholarship,  i7  \  60; 
Moslem  and  Visigothic 
rule,  a  contrast,  60;  63;  69; 
Almo  hades  persecution, 
180;  later  conditions,  254. 

Mutazalist  (Moslem  ration- 
alist), 2,7. 

"My  King,"  poem  for  the 
New  Year  by  Nachmanidcs, 
220-21. 

Mysticism,  defined,  222;  its 
religious  value,  its  perils, 
222;  see  Kabala. 

Nachmanides,  mystic,  ch. 
xxiii,  214,  contrasted  with 
M  a  i  m  u  n,  2  14-16;  de- 
fends Judaism  in  the  Bar- 
celona "Disputation,"  216- 
18;  banished,  established 
an  Academy  in  the  Orient, 
219;  poem,  "My  King," 
220. 

Nationalism,  Jewish,  Jehuda 
Halevi,  97;  Chasdai  Ibn 
Shaprut,  64. 

Navarre,  note  212-13;  Benja- 
min of  Tudela,  108. 

Neo-PIatonism,   note   83. 

Nicene  Creed,  note  24; 
Church  Council  decides 
Easter  no  longer  to  be  dat- 
ed from  the  Passover,  24. 

Non-Jews,  duties  to  (from 
"Book  of  Pious  Souls"),  90; 
240;  242. 

Obscurantists,  203. 

Orient,  status  of  Jews  in,  25, 

254-55. 
Or    Adonai,    "Light    of    the 

Lord,"  see  Crescas. 

"Palms  and  Myrtles,"  liturgi- 
cal poem  by  Kalir,  28. 


INDEX 


379 


Philo  and  Halevi,  note  104. 

Physicians,  Jewish,  Maimon- 
ides,  181;  note  205;  Jews 
and  medicine,  note  204;  de- 
barred from  treating  Chris- 
tians in  France,  238;  in 
Italy,  294. 

Pico  de  Mirandola,  Chris- 
tian student  of  Jewish  lit- 
erature, 295. 

Piyutim,  prayer  poems,  27; 
note  29. 

Plato  V.  Aristotle,  note  117. 

Poetry,  Hebrew,  written  for 
the  Liturgy,  26. 

Poland,  Jews  welcomed  in; 
form  middle  class,  develop 
its  resources,  322;  charter 
giving  Jews  local  jurisdic- 
tion, 1264,  323;  Casimir's 
charter  extends  their 
rights,  324;  varying  for- 
tunes in,  325;  John  of  Cap- 
istrano,  made  Inquisitor  of 
the  Jews,  induces  Poland 
to  impose  on  them  all  the 
restrictions  prevalent  in 
other  lands,  326-27;  Casimir 
the  Great,  note  331. 

Popes,  power  of,  22-23;  146- 
47. 

Popes  and  Jews,  147-49;  In- 
nocent III,  148;  Gregory 
IX,  150;  Innocent  IV,  Greg- 
ory X,  Martin  V,  Nicholas 
V  and  Paul  III,  issue  bulls 
condemning  "Ritual  Mur- 
der" slander,  163-65;  Mar- 
tin V,  protects  Jews,  316- 
18;  Sixtus  IV  issues  bull 
for  Spanish  Inquisition, 
2)2,7 ;  Clement  VII  protects 
Solomon  Molcho,  356;  note 
291-92;  more  favorable  at- 
titude in  Italy,  283. 
Portugal,  status  of  Jews  in, 
206-07;  head  of  commun- 
ity styled  "rabbi  mor,"  207; 


toleration  lingers  in,  353; 
faith  broken  with  Spanish 
refugees,  354;  expulsion  of 
Jews,  354-55;  Portuguese 
Maranos,  355;  David  Reu- 
beni,  adventurer,  Solomon 
Molcho  proselyte  and  vis- 
ionary, 356-57;  introduction 
of  Inquisition,  357-58;  Je\y- 
ish  refugees  pursued  in 
America,  368. 

Prayer,  Ibn  Ezra  on,  116; 
Kabalistic  theory  of,  234; 
Albo,  312. 

"Prince  and  Dervish,"  Chas- 
dai,  110. 

Prophecy,  Albo,  309,  Mai- 
monides,  192-93;  Gerson- 
ides,  248;  Crescas,  269. 

Profiat  Duran,  defender  of 
Judaism,  304. 

Providence,  see  God. 

Pumbeditha,  Eastern  Jewish 
Academy,  near  Bagdad,  38; 
closes  about  1038,  42. 

Rabbinism  v.  Karaism,  30; 
correspond  to  Moslem 
Sunnites  and  Shiites,  35; 
rivalry  of,  note  36. 

Rabenu  Gershom,  authority 
on  the  Law,  54;  calls  sy- 
nod, which  abrogates  po- 
lygamy, 55. 

Rabenu  Tam,  summons  sy- 
nod after  Second  Crusade, 
127. 

Rambam,  see  Maimonides. 

Rashba,  see  Solomon  ben 
Adret. 

Rashi,  ch.  xiv,  131 ;  education 
in  his  day,  132;  commen- 
tary on  the  Talmud,  133; 
commentary  on  the  Bible, 
133;  his  method  of  inter- 
pretation, 136;  his  influ- 
ence,    137-39;     Responsa, 


380 


INDEX 


137-38;  Jew  and  Gentile  in 
his    day;    attitude    toward 
repentant     apostates,     138; 
Rashi  and  the  Mishna,  note 
138. 
Rationalistic  School  of  Jew- 
ish    thought,     fostered     by 
Maimonides'       philosophy, 
opposed     by     Conservative 
School     (Obscurantists), 
202-03;     philosophic     study 
banned,    212;    250;    Moreh 
banned ;  note  213. 
Resh  Gelutha   (Head  of  Ex- 
ile)   shorn    of    power,    2)7; 
also  known  as  Exilarch,  of- 
fice   lapses    in   940,   42;    re- 
vived in  Bagdad,  255. 
Responsa,  note  43. 
Revelation,    Ibn    Ezra,    115; 
Halevi,  99;  versus  Reason, 
note  106;  Maimonides,  191. 
Ritual  and  History,  note  176. 
Ritual    Murder    slander 
("Blood  Accusation"),  156- 
57;    bulls    of    Innocent    IV 
and   Gregory   X    condemn- 
ing it,   163-65;   in   England, 
167;  in  France,  144;  in  Ma- 
jorca, 319;  Simon  of  Trent, 
319-20;  note  320.    Professor 
Strack's  book,  on,  note  320. 
Robert  of  Naples,  king,  pat- 
ron of  Jewish  learning,  285. 
Roman    Empire     revived    as 
Holy    Roman    Empire,    22; 
included    Germany    and 
Italy,  50;  status  of  Jews  in, 
158-60 ;    Eastern    Roman 
Empire,  see  E. 

Saadyah  Gaon,  ch.  iv,  37; 
greatest  Jewish  philoso- 
pher since  Philo,  39;  trans- 
lalies  Bible  into  Arabic,  39; 
Gaon  of  Sora,  40;  oppon- 
ent of  Karaites,  39;  de- 
posed from  Gaonite,  40; 
"Faith  and  Creed"  harmon- 


izes philosophy  and  faith, 
41  ;  contrasts  Judaism  with 
other  creeds,  41 ;  conserva- 
tive champion  of  rabbin- 
ism,  41 ;  restored  to  Gaon- 
ate,  41 ;  rationalized  the 
"Sepher  Yetzireh ;  note  44. 
Sahal,  Karaite  scholar,  36. 
Saladin,     liberal     Caliph     of 

Bagdad,   183,   188. 
Samuel  Ibn  Nagdela,  see  Ibn 

Nagdela. 
Saracen,  Eastern  Mohamme- 
dan, 183. 
Scholasticism,  note  83. 
Selling  Jews,  53. 
Sephardim,  Spanish  and  Por- 
tuguese   Jews,    359-61 ;    Se- 
phardic  ritual,  note  361. 
"Servants   of   the   Chamber," 

Servi  Camerae,  159. 
Shepherd  uprising  in  France, 

242. 
Sherira,  Gaon  of  Pumbeditha 
Academy,  and  historian,  42. 
Simon    of   Trent,   see    Ritual 

Murder. 
Solomon  ben  Adret  (Rashba) 
Talmudic  authority  in 
Spain,  211-12;  defends  Ju- 
daism against  critics,  211- 
12;  bans  study  of  science 
and  philosophy  by  those 
under  30th  year,  212. 
Solomon  Ibn  Gabirol,  ch.  ix, 
74;  Poems:  "Night 
Thoughts,"  "Meditation  on 
Life,"  "What  is  Man?" 
"Happy  He  Who  Saw  of 
Old,"  "A  Song  of  Redemp- 
tion," "The  Royal  Crown," 
74-79;  gave  new  devel- 
opment to  Hebrew  poetry, 
75;  his  philosophy, 
"Source  of  Life,"  compared 
with  Philo's,  80;  as  moral- 
ist, "Choice  of  Pearls," 
"Improvement   of   the 


INDEX 


381 


Moral  Qualities."  81 ;  limit- 
ed by  ignorance  of  natural 
science,  82. 

Solomon  Molcho,  proselyte, 
visionary,  martyr,  356-57. 

Sora,  Eastern  Jewish  Acad- 
emy, revived  by  Saadyah, 
40;  closes  in  948,  41. 

Soul,  The,  Kabala  on,  233; 
Baderisi.  299. 

"Source  of  Life,,"  Ibn  Gab- 
irol's  work  on  philosophy 
influenced  the  scholastics, 
note  83. 

Spain,  Moslem,  59-69;  Chris- 
tian— see  Castile,  Aragon, 
Maranos,  Inquisition. 
Granada  taken  from  the 
Moslem,  344-45;  Abarbanel, 
345-46;  Jews  expelled  from, 
347-49;  hardships  of,  348; 
exiles  received  in  Portugal, 
Italy,  and  Turkey,  349—51  ; 
in  America,  368;  poem  on 
expulsion,  351-52;  expulsion 
of  Jews  and  Moors,  note 
352;  status  of  Sephardim  in 
other  lands,  359-61. 

Suesskind,    troubadour,    154- 

55. 
Synods  ;  R.  Gershom,  1000,  55  ; 

after  Second  Crusade,  1146, 

127;    another    in    1223,    157; 

after  Black  Plague  in  1381, 

280. 

Tax-farming,  note  212. 

Temptation,  R.  Elezar  b. 
Jehudah,  on,  89. 

Tibbons,  the,  Judah  and 
Samuel,  translators,  142-43. 

Toledo  (Castile),  Jewish 
status  in,  107;  see  Ibn 
Daud,  and  Ibn  Ezra. 

Torquemada,  see  Inquisition. 

Tosafist,  formulater  of  addi- 
tional law  from  Talmud; 
note,  129-30. 


Travelers,  Jewish,  Benjamin 
of  Tudela,  108;  note,  117-18. 

Troubadour,  Suskind,   154-55. 

"Tur,"  Asherides'  summary 
of  Jewish  Law  in  four  divi- 
sions, 252-53;  later  expand- 
ed in  the  Shulchan  Aruch, 
253. 

Turkey,  conquers  Byzantine 
Empires,  328-29;  becomes 
haven  for  Jews,  330-31  ; 
Moses  Kapsali  given  a  seat 
in  the  State  Council  (Di- 
van) and  made  overseer  of 
Jews  in  Turkey,  330. 

Unitarians,  Moslem  (Almo- 
hades),  persecute  Jews,  180- 
81. 

Usury,  law  of,  168;  forced  on 
the  Jews,  145,  168,  173,  293. 

Vincent  Ferrer,  see  Monastic 
Orders. 

Viziers,  Jews  as,  ch.  vii,  68; 
in  Saragossa,  71 ;  compared 
to    Hofjuden,    note    73. 

"Wars  of  the  Lord,"  see  Ger- 
sonides. 

York  Castle  Tragedy,  171. 

Zacuto,  Abraham,  astrono- 
mer, 362;  note  370. 

Zacuto,  Moses,  Astronomer, 
274. 

Zallaka,  battle  of,  1086,  72; 
107. 

Zohar,  The,  Kabalistic  com- 
mentary on  Scripture,  226; 
ascribed  to  Simon  b.  Yo- 
chai,  227;  proof  of  late 
compilation,  note  229;  util- 
izes Disputations,  note  229- 
30;  God,  231;  man,  233;  The 
Messiah,  234;  evil,  234; 
prayer,  234-35;  Providence, 
235;  favorite  study  of 
Christians,  295. 


382 
Themes  for  Discussion. 

Chapter  Page 

I.  A  critic  has  said  that  the  Holy  Roman  Em- 
pire was  neither  holy,  Roman  nor  an 
empire.     Analyze  this  criticism 24 

II.     The  function  of  music  in  religion 29 

III.  The   likeness    and   difference   between    Sad- 

ducees   and   Karaites 36 

IV.  Was    it    altogether    in    the    interest    of    the 

Jewish  cause  that  the  spread  of  Karaism 
was  checked  through  the  vigor  of  Saad- 
yah? 45 

V.     Why   have   proselyte   Jewish    kingdoms    not 

been  successful?  48 

VI.  The  advisability  and  practicability  of  a 
Synod  today,  advocated  by  some,  to  ad- 
just Jewish  practice  in  accordance  with 
modern  belief    56 

VII.     Was  the  need  for  a  Jewish  nation  greater 

in  Chasdai's  day  than  in  ours? 66 

VIII.  In  contrast  with  Ibn  Nagdela,  David  Salo- 
mon in  1848  refused  to  take  the  oath  '"on 
the  true  faith  of  a  Christian"  and  pre- 
ferred to  resign  his  seat  in  the  English 
Parliament    7i 

IX.     Influence   of   our  knowledge  of  nature  and 

its  laws  on  our  philosophy  of  life 83 

X.     Bachya     said     knowledge     deepens     faith; 

others  that  it  undermines  it 92 

XL  Bring  out  the  difference  between  Jehuda 
Halevi's  love  of  Zion  and  the  modern 
movement  known   as   Zionism 106 

XII.     Everyone   is   either  a   Platonist  or  an  Aris- 
totelian, the  average  Jew  being  the  latter.      118 

XIII.  Pilgrimages   in   Judaism.     Passover,   Pente- 

cost and  Tabernacles  are  called  "The 
Three  Festivals  of  Pilgrimage" 129 

XIV.  Compare  the  study  of  the  Talmud  as  litera- 

ture with  its  study  as  a  Code  of  Law...     139 
XV.     Some  famous  works  better  known  in  their 

translation  than  in  their  original  tongues.     145 

XVL  Contrast  the  Jewish  Essenes  with  the  Chris- 
tian monks  153 


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Chapter  Page 

XVII.  The  Troubadour  Suskind  suggests  the  ques- 
tion in  how  far  could  the  mediaeval  Jews 
enter  into  the  social  life  of  the  Gentile...     165 

XVIII.     What  defense  can  be  offered  for  Edward's 

expulsion  of  the  Jews  ? 176 

XIX.  The  difference  between  Judaism  and  Chris- 
tian Unitarianism   189 

XX.  Why  did  Maimonides  write  his  Summary  of 
Jewish  Law  in  Hebrew  and  his  pnilosophy 
in  Arabic?    198 

XXI.  In  judging  others  beware  of  calling  ration- 
alists right  and  mystics  wrong  or  vice- 
versa.  Both  may  be  right  from  different 
points  of  view.  It  is  not  a  matter  of 
truth  but  of  temperament 205 

XXII.  Was  the  diversion  of  Spanish  interest  from 
poetry  and  philosophy  to  theology  and 
law,  progressive  or   retrogressive? 213 

XXIII.  Why  was  it  more  dangerous  for  Jews  to  win 

than    to    lose    in    disputations    with    the 
Church?    221 

XXIV.  Can    we    separate    faith    and    realization    of 

God  from  mysticism  ? 230 

XXV.     The  distinction   between  the   orthodox   and 

the  Kabalistic  acceptance  of  Tradition...     237 

XXVI.  We  may  judge  the  spirit  of  an  age  and  the 
degree  of  its  enlightenment  by  the  books 
it  bans  and  burns 245 

XXVII.     W^hy  did  Asherides    exercise   a   greater   in- 
fluence on  Judaism  than  Gersonides? 253 

XXVIII.     The   relation    between   the    doctrine    of   the 

Messiah   and  Jewish  nationalism 260 

XXIX.  Contrast  the  opinions  of  Gersonides  and 
Crescas  on  Omniscience,  Providence  and 
Prophecy   274 

XXX.     The  Jew  as  scapegoat  for  the  world's  woes.     282 

XXXI.  Why  could  the  theme  of  "Purgatory"  not 
be  treated  as  seriously  by  a  Jew  as  by  a 
Christian  ?    292 

XXXII.     Why  was  medicine  a  favorite  study  of  the 

Jew?    300 


384 


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XXXIII.  Contrast    between    the    modern     Maranos, 

who  keep  their  Jewish  faith  in  the  back- 
ground to  escape  prejudice,  and  the  call 
of  Isaiah  xliii,  10;  xlix,  6 307 

XXXIV.  Compare    Albo's    principles    of    the    Jewish 

Creed  with  those  of  Maimonides 313 

XXXV.     Why   did    the   Hussite   uprising   foment   an- 
tagonism  against    the   Jews? 321 

XXXVI.     Why  was  Poland  more  tolerant  when  less 

civilized  ?    331 

XXXVII.     Did  the  Inquisition   aid  or  injure  the  cause 

of  Christianity  ?    343 

XXXVIII.  To  what  extent  may  Spain's  decline  be  at- 
tributed to  the  banishment  of  the  Jews 
and  Moors  ?    352 

XXXIX.  Compare  the  modern  Jewish  method  of 
time  measurement  with  that  of  the  Chris- 
tians and  Mohammedans  361 

XL,     The  participance  of  Jews  in  the  discovery  of 

the  Western  Continent 370 


LuuelludL'        Went 


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E  Jews  Resided  Before  the  Expulsion 


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